Booklet contained in
DD21-D Document Box Labelled: Joan (Seppings) Webster.... Misc Documents & Press Clippings
IF content judged of sufficient historic value:
Needs Proofreading
BOX HILL
MELBOURNE
RINGWOOD
DONCASTER & TEMPLESTOWE
iMullum Mulium Forest
nunawading
RINGWOOD
The Koonung-Muilum Valley Forestway Association
KOONUNG - MULLUM
Forestway not freeway!
Tr\ Vrtrm Diwor
CONTENTS
Editor: Scott Baker and Bob MacDonald
Contributors: (see contents)
Keyboard: Ann-Marie Delaney
Typeset: Superscript Publishing, Vic.
Printer: Charlie
Illustrations: Simon Rogers
Publisher: Natural History Network
For further information about this publication contact: Koonung Mullum Forestway Co-ordinating Committee
THIS PUBLICATION HAS BEEN PRINTED ON RE-CYCLED PAPER.
1 Eastern freeway extension - Ringwood by-pass link proposal Original and doctored versions of report prepared by Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands
5 Wildlife - a natural history
by Scott Baker
7 Wildlife - corridor study by Scott Baker
8 A critical review Review of biological report prepared for the Road Construction Authority by Lawrle Conole
12 Flora and fauna guarantee Review of conservation legislation by Nick Crosble
13 Protecting the environment. Review of the Victorian Conservation Strategy by Scott Baker
14 Green belts and urban waterways by Darcey Duggan
17 Freeways and the greenhouse problem by Darcey Duggan
18 Air quality study by R. A. Wright
19 Noise pollution by R. A. Wright
20 Free-flowing traffic P. W. C. Newman, J. R. Kenworthy and T. J. Lyons ask the question: Does it save energy and lower emissions in cities?
EASTERN FREEWAY EXTENSION
RINGWOOD BY-PASS LINK PROPOSAL
Comments on fauna values of Mullum Mullum bushland
by Cam Beardsell, Wildlife Management Branch and Doug Frood, Consultant Botanist
The report by Frood and Beardsell below was first prepared in November 1988 as CF&L document by a CF&L employee on CF&L time and an often used CF&L consultant and expert botanist. A second version of this document appeared in early 1989 severely altered without the knowledge of the authors. It appears that the original document was ‘doctored’ by someone in the upper levels of the bureaucracy to support the Cain governments proposal to build a freeway. How many other documents by qualified reseachers have been altered without their knowledge? If department bureaucrats feel the pressing need to alter reports from scientists then they should state on the altered report that this has been done and not besmirch the quality of research with their inexpert politically motivated editing. The parts of the original paper deletedfrom the publicly released copy are shown in boxed type. Inserts into the altered document (new words and sentences) are shown in italic.
Below is a copy of a letter signed by Kay Setches, Minister for Conservation, Forests and Lands, that was attached to the altered document.
EASTERN FREEWAY EXTENSION - RINGWOOD BY-PASS LINK
The attached document comprises draft comments prepared by the Wildlife Management Branch of the National Parks and Wildlife Division for the Melbourne Region of my Department, on the fauna values of the Mullum Mullum Bushland.
The draft comments were prepared as background information for my Department’s use. It is pleasing to note that they are consistent with the matters raised and conclusions reached by the independent panel reviewing the EES.
The EES Panel Report includes a recommendation that the Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands is to be consluted regarding land protection issues and the conservation of flora and fauna values of the area during the construction of the freeway. I have instructed my Department to use this document as the basis of their consultation and liaison with relevant agencies.
KAY SETCHES
MINISTER FOR CONSERVATION, FORESTS AND LANDS
16 March 1989
Attach.
KEY TO READING REPORT
BOXED copy Indicates the removal ot original text ITALIC copy indicates the insertion ot additional text
EASTERN FREEWAY EXTENSION - RINGWOOD BY-PASS LINK PROPOSAL
The environment
Rainfall increases from 700 mm per annum at the Balwyn end of Koonung Creek to approximately 850 mm in the Mullum Mulium valley. The lower end of Koonung Creek includes sections of alluvial flood plain with relatively broad valley slopes. Further upstream, the true riparian strip becomes narrower. The physiography of the Mullum Mullum valley is steeper and the valley slopes terminate in close proximity to the creek (Figure 1).
The underlying geology of the area comprises a range of Silurian sedimentary deposits with areas of Quaternary alluvium along the valleys. Major vegetation types reflect rainfall and available moisture gradients, and soil factors. For the purposes of this discussion, the valleys can be regarded as a continuum along the rainfall gradient affected by local physiography and soil variation.
Vegetation
Alluvial soils support woodlands dominated by Manna Gum, and Swamp Gum, interspersed with areas of wetland dominated by Swamp Paperbark, grassed, rushes, reeds, sedges and herbs. Yellow Box occurs on drier sites and adjacent fertile slopes. River Red gum also occurs in the lower reaches of the Koonung Creek valley, mixing with Manna Gum and Yellow Box. This area can be considered as an extension of the YarTa River flats. Lower slopes support grassy or shrubby woodland or open forest on fertile soils (Yellow Box, River Red Gum, Manna Gum, Long-leaf Box, Red Stringybark or Narrow-leaf Peppermint). On sheltered sites, particularly in the Mullum Mullum valley. Narrow-leaf Peppermint and Messmate dominate moister shrubby forests. Gullies include a mixture of the species from the riparian zone and adjacent slopes. In the Koonung Creek area, minor gullies and seepage zones on lower slopes support species including Swamp Gum, Silver-leaf Stringybark and Scent-bark. Narrow-leaf Peppermint and Mesmate often occur on the fringes around minor drainage lines.
Drier slopes and ridges in the Mullum Mullum valley support a grassy woodland or open forest of Red Stringybark, Long-leaf Box and occasionally Red Box or Candlebark.
This box-Stringybark vegetation type, grades into Yellow Box-Messmate forest, or into Silver-leaf Stringybark with a heathy understorey. Broad-leaved Peppermint is an infrequent component of the higher ridges. The vegetation o f the ridges and higher slopes of the Koonung Creek valley has virtually been obliterated by clearing, only a few isolated trees persist. These include Long-leaf Box, Red Stringybark, yellow Box and silver-leaf Stringybark, and in the Balwyn area. River Red Gum.
A. Mullum Mullum Creek
The Mullum Mullum Creek rises to the north-east Ringwood in a local divide between the Yarra River and Dandcnong Creek drainage basins. After initially flowing to the south-west along this divide
the creek changes direction to the north-west, cutting through steep, hilly terrain to form a deep, narrow valley. It then meanders through broader gullies and ultimately through floodplains before entering the Yarra River downstream of Warrandytc. By virtue of its steepness and poor accessibility much of the Deep Creek Road to Heads Road section of the Mullum Mullum escaped residential development until relatively recently. In this report the remnant vegetation in this area will be referred to as the Mullum Mullum bushland.
The bushland has over 40 ha of the most diverse and natural remnant flora of the local area and contains all three local vegetation communities:
This bushland has diverse natural remnantflora and contains all four local broad vegetation types:
(1) riparian and gully forest (Manna Gum - Swamp Gum)
(2) sheltered slopes shrubby forest (Narrow-leaf Peppermint-Messmate)
(3) dry slopes grassy forest and sclcrophyll woodland (box-stringybark)
(4) sclerophyll woodland (silver-leaf stringybark alliance)
No existing reserve in the outer eastern suburbs of Melbourne contains more than two vegetation communides e.g. Warrandytc State Park which contains (1) and (3) and Dandenong Valley Metropolitan Park which contains (1) and (2). and (4).
The Mullum Mullum bushland is directly affected by the freeway proposal.
Significance of Mullum Mullum bushland fauna
The Mullum Mullum bushland contains over 100 bird species (excluding vagrants), 9 mammal species and 16| herpetofaunaj native frog and reptile species. Such species diversity makes this site of regional significance. It is comparable in species richness to significantly larger regional bushland areas (e.g. Dandenong Valley Metropolitan Park and Warrandyte State Park) and exceeds similarsized local bushland blocks (e.g. 100 acres at Park Orchards and Blackburn Lake - each containing about 60 bird species).
The reasons for the richness in fauna at Mullum Mullum bushland is due largely to it having a highly diverse flora. Many species characterise the dry box-stringybark forests more typical of north-central Victoria (e.g. White-winged Chough, Wcabill and Brown Toadlet) while others characterise the moist pcppcrmint-slringy-bark forests more typical of the Eastern Highlands (e.g. Australian King Parrot and Crescent Honeyeater).
The riparian forests link north to the Yarra River and Eastern Highlands and south across the local divide to the Dandenong Creek and Dandenong Ranges. This vegetation link is one of the major corridors in the eastern Melbourne region for migrating birds (others being the Plenty River and Yarra River). Some regular migrant species are restricted to the riparian forests (e.g. Sacred Kingfisher) while many of the vagrants (e.g. Square-tailed Kite, Lewin’s Honeyeater etc) use this riparian corridor for movement to and from regular breeding and feeding habitats.
Mullum Mullum bushland is also a | vital | important link in local movements of fauna and allows genetic exchange between populations. This is particularly important for resident species such as the Bell Miner. The bushland forms the main link in „
a series of local bushland remnants including Antonio Park and Blackburn Lake, all have dynamic bird populations and considered together as a unit enable the presence of species characteristic of larger bushland areas (e.g. Crimson Rosella, Australian King Parrot). Of further interest is the 10 species of parrots which occur in the Mullum Mullum. Many of these species along with owls, bats and arboreal mammals require tree-hollows for nesting and roosting purposes.
possibly nest in the Mullum Mullum. These birds along with the owls require large tree-hollows and relative seclusion for nesting, any further small loss of habitat along the creek could eliminate these species and many of the rare vagrants from the area (loss of 25-30% of bird species). Continued disturbance and fragmentation of the bushland will upset the present faunal regime. For example, opening up of the hillslope forest and woodland away from the creek may enable the domination of this habitat by the Bell Miner, a gully forest specialist. These miners will then exclude most other small insectivorous bird species, giving rise to high populations of invertebrate leaf defoliators which can ultimately cause severe eucalyptus dieback (especially Messmate) as has happened at nearby Blackburn Lake.
The sensitivity of the Mullum Mullum bushland environment to disturbance can be illustrated by the recent local extinction of a number of species such as the Eastern Whipbird.
At least two rare butterfly species (Chaostola Skipper and Small Ant Blue) have been recorded in the Mullum Mullum (McCubbin 1971). The skipper may have been eliminated due to the chronic depletion of its larval food-plant, Thatch Sawsedge.
The ant blue is known from only two other locations in Victoria and one of these is under threat. Further loss of habitat may eliminate other butterfly species at the Mullum Mullum.
It is not known whether these species still occur at the Mullum Mullum.
Significance of Mullum Mullum bushland flora
The area north of Mullum Mullum Creek between Deep Creek Road and Hillcrest Reserve still supports an extensive belt of bushland. While weed invasion of the riparian strip is chronic, sections of the slopes are virtually weed free, and species richness is high (e.g. over 40 species in 10 m x 10 m quadrat).
The Mullum Mullum bushland originally supported an extraordinarily rich orchid flora (approximately 60 species in the early 1970’s - Beardsell, 1983 - A Year of Orchids). A strong biogeographic affinity with parts of west Gippsland is shown by the presence of such species as Cryptostylis leptochila, Thelymi-tra flexuosa, T. antennifera, Caladenia alba, C. congesta, C. iridescens,Prasophyllum archeri andP. morrisii (as well as by the presence of Eucalyptus globoidea). Affinities also occur with higher rainfall areas further east (e.g. Pterostylis scabrida, Gas-trodia sesamoides and Thelymitra media). While many species have become locally extinct some (e.g. Cryptostylis leptochila) are inadequately reserved in the region.
The geographic placement of this bushland area makes it com-plemenary to existing reserves east of Melbourne. For example, E. cephalocarpa is absent from Warrandyte State Park, while E. polyanthemos which is abundant at Warrandyte is uncommon at
the Mullum Mullum (e.g. at Chaim Court and Huggin’s Road bush).
South of the Mullum Mullum Creek, the Yarran Dheran gardens must be considered in terms of recreational and aesthetic values rather than as having conservation significance. This area would be the source of much of the bird transported seed of Sweet Pittosporum, one of the most serious weeds of the bushland north of the creek.
While active ecological management is required, principally for weed control, the Mullum Mullum bushland is viable.
B. Koonung Creek
Koonung Creek is a small creek which joins the Yarra River at Bulleen. The entire drainage basin is a highly modified urban area but small bushland remnants containing elements of three broad vegetation types:
(1) riparian scrub (Swamp Paperbark alliance)
(2) floodplain woodland (manna Gum/River Red Gum alliance)
(3) sheltered slopes forest (Yellow Box/Red Stringy bark alliance)
communities which once covered Melbourne’s eastern suburbs are present at disjunct intervals along the creek (see flora section).
The two sites of highest significance are off Joseph Street, North Blackburn and off Winfield Road, North Balwyn.
The area of Koonung Creek in the direct path or environment of the proposed freeway is between Springvale and Doncaster Road.
Significance of Koonung Creek fauna
Koonung Creek is the only remaining minor tributary of the inner suburban Yarra River which has not already been substantially barrel-drained or converted into roadway, along with the existing part of the Eastern Freeway, the proposed extension will directly affect about 95% of the existing course of the creek and its associated open spaces and bushland remnants. It will severly deplete the 60 native bird species, 10 native frog and reptile species and three native mammal species, leaving behind only the generalist species characteristic of urban areas (e.g. Common Ringtail Possum, Red Wattlebird, White-plumed Honeyeater and possibly Garden Skink).
Significance of Koonung Creek flora
The remnants along Koonung Creek have been severely degraded in recent years, however over 100 species of indigenous native plants persist. It is a highly significant relict in an area where the local flora has been virtually obliterated. The vegetation of the Koonung Creek valley supports a number of species of the Yarra flats and lower rainfall grass woodland communities which do not extend into the Mullum Mullum (e.g. Danthonia caespitosa, Rumex brownii, Lepidium pseudo-tasmanicum, Eucalyptus ? aromaphloia, E. camaldulensis and various aquatic and semi-aquatic species).
The remnant vegetation near Joseph Street is highly significant and retains a very high number of native species (over 50) for its small size. This remnant is now penetrated by mown strips, and
is becoming increasingly smaller due to further incursions by slashing.
The area north of the creek, and east of Middleborough Road, [y supported good bushland until about fifteen years ago. Many spe-
cies still persist and if mowing were to cease, some recuperation would be likely. In the first few years after a clearing of the understorey, a magnificent floral show occurred in spring, as about a dozen speicies of geophytes flowered successively, but these are now thinning out as a consequence of repeated mowing.
Degradation and clearing of wetland areas and Melaleuca scrubs have led to stream bank erosion and aided the advance of many weedy species. On the west side of Middleborough Road, the remnant vegetation on the north curring contains nearly 40 native species.
These areas are significant, and to an extent retrievable with appropriate management There is virtually no other remnant native vegetation in this part
These areas are significant, and to an extent retrievable with appropriate management There is virtually no other remnant native vegetation in this part of Melbourne. Certainly not with the abundance of species as occurs at these sites.
Effect of the proposed freeway on remnant vegetation of the Koonung and Mullum Mullum valleys
As well as considering the impact on current features, it is important to consider the impact of the proposed freeway on the potential of the area. This strip of land along these valleys is an
‘corridor’. The impact of the Eastern Freeway on Studley Park has been dramatic in terms of destruction of a bushland environment, and constitutes a degradation of the park as a whole.
An area at least double the width of the final roadway is affected by construction works. Drainage patterns are altered, and soil distrubance and propagule transport initiates new weed invasions (e.g. of Oxalis spp. and Allium triquetrum at Studley park). Instream sedimentation due to earthworks and increased erosion will result from removal of the riparian vegetation. This will affect the aquatic flora and fauna both locally and downstream. The effects of fumes and locally increased nutrient and heavy metal levels from vehicle exhausts are inadequately know. Wind-tunnel effects are likely to have an impact on surrounding vegetation (e.g. storm damage to trees).
The integrity of the bushland is dependent on both flora and fauna, including invertebrates. The impact of lights, noise and high vehicle numbers can be anticipated to dramatically alter faunal populations, including vital pollinator species, but the associated effects on plants are as yet inadequately known. If the Mullum Mullum bushland were fragmented further the healthy stands of uncleared eucalypts will deteriorate in condition. High road mortalities of fauna can occur where arterial roads cross established faunal corridors. The noise and traffic hazard of a freeway will reduce movements of mammals through the corridor (particularly Eastern Grey Kangaroo, Swamp Wallaby and Common Wombat).
* Hence, apart from the direct loss of remnant vegetation from a strip at least 150 metres in width, construction of the freeway can ' be anticipated to initiate a series of ecological changes to the detriment of the bushland and creeks as a whole. While weeds are currently at manageable levels on the upper slopes of the Mullum
Mullum bushland, initiation of major invasions would be an ' inevitable outcome of freeway construction.
High quality native vegetation cannot be replaced in the short to medium term. Planting ornamental, non-indigenous native trees and shurbs does not constitute rehabilitation of a floristi-cally diverse vegetation, and there is no existing precedent of satisfactory broad-scale restoration following such construction works in Victoria.
Summary
The path of the proposed freeway traverses highly significant remnants of native vegetation, particularly north of Yarran Dheran. While the remnants along Koonung Creek have been severely degraded in recent years over 100 indigenous native i plant species persist Substantial recovery would be likely with the cessation of antagonistic management.
The highly significant remmant vegetation near Chaim Court and off Huggin’s Road in the Mullum Mullum bushland is in remarkably intact condition. With improved management, this area clearly has the potential to remain viable in the long term.
With changes in management perspectives, this urban corridor has great potential to function as a highly significant bushland reserve, as well as providing recreational facility. It is important to consider the impact of the proposed freeway on this potential.
Significance of Koonung Creek fauna
Koonung Creek contains 60 native bird species, 10 native frog and reptile species and three native mammal species. This diversity of species, in the context of the surrounding area, makes it a valuable remnant.
Summary
The path of the proposed freeway traverses important remnants of 4
native vegetation, particularly in the Hillcrest Reserve.
While this urban corridor is degraded it is valuable from a faunal viewpoint and has the potential to function as an important bushland reserve, as well as providing a recreational facility.
Clearly all remnant areas of bushland in the Melbourne urban area are important, if only because so much natural vegetation has been cleared for development. Disturbance and fragmentation of the Mullum Mullum bushland will disrupt the presentfaunal regime.
Once home of the Wurunjeri aboriginal tribe, the Koonung and Mullum Mullum Creek valleys contain some of the last remaining forest areas that would once have covered from Box Hill, through Nunawading Doncaster and Ring-wood.
Much has been completely lost and damaged, but the geographic structure of the valleys has so far harboured them from the near total desecration that the surrounding areas have suffered. Significant stands of bushland persisted throughout the valleys, and today flourish as part of one of the most important wildlife greenbelt corridors existing within urban Melbourne.
Well before development took its grip, the region was acclaimed for its flora and fauna, and frequented by naturalists.
Diary Extracts
Extracts from the diary of an early local egg collector reads:
‘October 31st (1908)
Ringwood with Les, Jack and Frank. Made tracks for the dam seeing several species of birds on the way among them the Smicromis (Weebill). I found a nest of Oriolus Veridus (Olive-backed Oriole) just ready for eggs below the dam and closeby we saw a Spotted Pardalote collecting bark from a Stringy bark sapling with which to make his nest..... Jack found nest of Eopsaltria Australis (Eastern Yellow Robin) containing two eggs which were left and Les found building nest a Aegintha Temporalis (Red browed Firetail) I found nest of A. Pusilla (Brown Thombill) in wild myrtle bush 2 1/2 feet up containing 2 eggs of the tit with one each of the Fantailed Cuckoo and the Narrow-billed Cuckoo (Horsefield’s Bronze Cuckoo) ... Also found building nest a Blue Wren and a nest of P. Pectoralis (Golden Whistler) in wild myrtle containing a beautiful egg which was left in hope of getting the full clutch. Nest of Rufous Thickhead (Rufous Whistler) just
ready for eggs....Frank found a nest of
Chthonicola (Speckled Warbler) containing 2 young and an extraordinary long egg of the ' Bronze Cuckoo (new record). Jack found nest of Lunulated Honeyeater (White-naped
WILDLIFE
A Natural History
by Scott Baker
Honeyeater) but it was inaccessible. Ires flushed an Owlet Nightjar far from a hollow but we could not get it there was also another hollow further up which was tenanted by the mate. Found nest of White-winged Chough. Frank found nest of A. Reguloides (Buff-rumped Thombill) containing nothing. Les flushed another Owlet Nightjar from a hollow about 20 feet up and a nice clutch of 4 fresh eggs was the reward. On the way home we saw Frank’s nest of the Hooded Robin which was built on a piece of loose bark hanging from a dead tree and which was just ready for eggs. Frank found a delightful nest of Chlhomicola Sagiltata
(Speckled Warbler) placed in a bed of maidenhair containing 3 eggs fresh one of them being that of the Fantailed Cuckoo. I found nest of H. Sanctus (Sacred Kingfisher) but did not climb it Leaden flycatchers were numerous in the district but did not seem to be building yet.
Jan 1st 1911 - Ringwood for Picnic Flo found nest of Cinclosoma punctatum (Spotted Quart-thrush)’.
Today, while much still thrives, disturbance has forced out species such as Speckled Warbler, Hooded Robin and Spotted Quail-thrush. Owlet Nightjars White
winged Choughs and Buff-rumped Thombills, once common species, are now restricted to small numbers in some intact, least disturbed sites of the Mullum. Leaden Flycatchers have also become very scarce. This, as well as more recently the extinction of Eastern Whipbirds from the Mullum Mullum, clearly illustrates the extreme sensitivity of the valley environments.
Of the flora, J.W. Andas (then the Senior botanist. National Herbarium, Melbourne) wrote in 1937:
‘The area dealt with lies mainly in the Parish of Nunawading, County of Bourke.
The flora has a special interest in being the richest and most accessible for purposed of collection and study, containing a comparatively large number of species, representing the most important and characteristic families of Victorian plants, the knowledge of which give a good insight into the features of the Victorian flora generally.’ (pg 1 ‘Flora of Mitcham’)
‘One of Mitcham’s beauty spots is at Mullum or Deep Creek, which lies to the north-east of the town. T aking the Doncaster Road for about half a mile, a turn is made to the right along the Quarry Road, from which many pretty views of the ranges are obtained, and its side are bordered with a natural forest of Eucalyptssuch as Swamp Gum (Eucalyptus Ovata), Long-leaf Box (Euc. elaeophora), Manna Gum (Euc. viminalis), Red Stringybark (Euc. Macror-rhyncha), Common Peppermint (Euc. australiana)... Messmate Stringybark (Euc. obliqua). Yellow Box (Euc. melliodora), Mealy Stringybark (Euc.cinerea) and Cherry Ballart (Exocarpus cupressiformis) also shrubs such as Common Heath (Epacaris impressa). Hop Goodenia (G. Ovata), Common Beard Heath (Leucopogan virgatus) Tufted Lily (Stypandra caespitosa) Golden Bush Pea (Pultenaea Gunnii).
Grey Parrot Pea (Dillwynia cinerascens) Narrow-leaf Bitter Pea (Daviesia corym-bosa), Hop Bitter Pea (D. latifolia) and Golden Spray (Viminaria denudata)’ (pg 7 ‘Flora of Mitcham’)
Fortunately, even today, such a description is accurately applicable to this very
Koonung creek - basic ecology
In more recent years much of the Koonung Creek valley has been severely treated, restricting the extent of indigenous vegetation to valuable ‘pockets’, and irregularly dispersed individual plants.
Much of the initial lower valley consisted of a Swamp Paperback (Melaleuca cricifolia) scrub, interspersed with plants such as Swamp Gum (Eucalyptus ovata) Blackwood (Acacia melanoxylon) and Snowy Daisy Bush (Olearia lirata), with rushes and Tussock Grass (Poa labillardieri) covering the ground. While now degraded it still houses Yellow Robins, Brown Thombills Kookaburras and Superb Fairy Wrens.
Part of the Koonung traverses flatter land and a flood plain is created, such wetlands are feeding grounds for Royal Spoonbills Yellow-billed Spoonbills and White-faced hems where they forage amongst knotweed (Polygonum spp) Duckweed (Lemna sp) and Common sneeze Wort (Centipeda cun-ninghamii). Golden Bell Frogs (Litoria Raniformis) occur also here.
Where the valley slopes have remained intact, open woodlands exist characterised mainly by Yellow Box (Eucalyptus mellio-dora), Red Stringybark (Eucalyptus mac-rorhyncha) and River Red Gums (Eucalyptus camalduhensis). In the moister sections Messmate Stringybark (Eucalyptus obli-qua) and Narrow-leaf Peppermint (Eucalyptus Radiata) are more dominant and can often have an understorey thick with Thatch. Saw-sedge (Gahnia Radulata) - a vital food plant for many ‘Skipper’ butterflies.
The remaining habitat is frequented by Red-rumped Parrots, Bell miners, Varied Sittellas, spotted and Striated Pardalotes,
White-plumed Honeycaters, White-naped Honeyeatcrs, Mistlctoebirds, Musk Lorikeets, Eastern Rosellas, Tawny Frogmouths, Crested Shrike-tits, Grey Shrike Thrushes and many other bird species. Copperhead Snakes and Delicate Skinks live in the understorcy.
Black Wattles (Acacia meamsii) are good habitat trees for the nocturnal Sugar Gliders - a small marsupial gliding possum. Overhead patrol Australian Goshawks, Black-shouldered Kites, and Australian Kestrels.
Mullum Mullum creek-basic ecology
Most of the Mullum Mullum creek valley is in natural, and in parts near pristine condition. Extensive drier forest on the higher ridges are thickly carpeted with Wallaby Grass (Danthonia Pallida) and Tussock Grass (Poa Cebriana), although much of the lower areas in the gully regions is prone to weed invasion.
Red Stringybark (Eucalyptus mac-rorhyncha) and Long-leaf Box (Eucalyptus goniocalyx) are abundant on the higher slopes of the valley. Many small passerines are attracted to their foliage such as Striated Thombills and Weebills; Grey Currawongs and Buff-rumped Thombills (in very small numbers) feed in the fairly open, quality, heath and grassland understorey. Occasionally Eastern Grey Kangaroos move through; Short-beaked Echidnas are resident but rarely seen due to their fairly inconspicuous nature. Small Grass trees (Xanthorea minor) are widespread in this habitat and Pate Flax Lilies (Dianella lavevis) are also present
Most of the hillsides are dominated by Messmate Stringybark (Eucalyptus obli-
qua), Yellow Box (Eucalyptus Mcllicodora) and Narrow-leaf Peppermint (Eucalyptus radiata), with the occasional occurrence of Silver-leaf Stringybark now a fairly restricted species. Birds abound including Common Bronzewings, Yellow Thombill, Yellow-faced Honeyeater, Golden Whistler, Grey Fantail, Red-browed Finches. During 1987 a Red-browed Trce-crccpcr stayed in the area for a number of months -this was the first to ever be recorded in the Melbourne suburban region. Some of the nocturnal animals are Southern Boobook, Common Wombat (now rare) and Owlet Nightjars.
The gully areas, while fairly deteriorated in part are still ecologically rich. White-throated Tree-creepers reside in the quieter sections of the valley; White-eared Hon-eyeaters, and less commonly Mountain Thrushs usually pass through sporadically. Manna Gums (Eucalyptus viminalis) and Swamp gums (Eucalyptus Ovata) are most typical of this riparian strip. Koalas occasionally wander along this area, as do Swamp Wallabies. The status of Powerful Owls along here is unknown, but they are believed to be an irregular visitor.
The Valleys - a seasonal perspective
Autumn
The calls of Pied currawongs begin echoing across the valleys as they move down form the highlands. Browrt'-Tree-frogs (Litoria ewingii) and Geocrinia Victoriana (a frog inhabiting damp ground, leaf litter, rotting logs, etc) become more vocal. Spectacular fungal displays can appear, species including Clavulinopsis miniata, Laccaria laccata, Omphalina fibula, Omphalina chromocca, Pisolithus tinctorious, many Amanita and Russula species, Puff Balls (Lycopcrdon praterse) Earth Stars (Geastrum triplex), Coral fungi (Clavaria sp.), tree dwelling bracket fungi including Ganoderma appla-natum and the large Piptoporus, also present are wetter forest species like Cortinarius rotundisporus and Cortinarius astrovenetus.
Peregrine Falcons, Collared Sparrow-hawks and Gang Gang Cockatoos may visit the area, and Rose, Pink, Flame and Scarlet Robins should move in from the highlands to stay for the winter. Rose and Pink Robins will tend to keep<6 the less disturbed forest gullies.
Winter
Most avifaunal migration should by now be
complete. Swift Parrots and King Parrots may appear in the region, Golden Whistlers - and Silvereyes will probably locally increase in.numbers; Australian Hobbies and Maned Ducks will possibly also become more frequent.
Tall and Nodding Greenhood orchids will begin to flower, and some birds like little Ravens may even be preparing nests for the breeding season.
Spring
Always a very active month as birds and plants alike begin breeding. Winter visitors head off elsewhere to nest, while Painted Button-quails, Fantailed cuckoos. Shining Bronze Cuckoos, Rufous Whistlers, Pallid Cuckoos, Black-faced Cuckoo Shrikes, Olive-backed Orioles, Dusky Woodswal-Iows, Rufous Night herons. Satin Flycatchers, Rufous Fan tails, Sacred Kingfishers and White-winged Choughs move into the valleys. Over 50 species of birds are known to breed within the valleys. Also previously noted at this time of year have been Regent and Lewin's Honeyeaters, Scarlet Hon-eyeaters, Lathams Snipe, dollarbird. Western Gerygone, and Square-tailed Kite.
Butterflies are also abundant, many have been recorded such as Bright Copper, Grass Yellow, Common Brown, Wood White, Grass Blue, Klugs Xenica, Ringed Xenica, Painted Lady, Yellow-banded Grass-dart, Imperial White, Spotted Skipper, Mountain Spotted Skipper, Flame Skipper, Meadow Argus, Imperial Blue and dingy Swallowtail. In the past the rare Chaostola Skipper and Small Ant Blue butterflies have been found but it is not known if they still exist.
Leopard Orchids, Brown Beaks, Green-comb Spider Orchids and Helmet Orchids are just part of a brilliant array of wildflow-ers that will be blossoming at this time of year amongst the Heath (Epacaris Impressa) and Wallaby Grass (Danthonia)
Summer
Yellow-tailed Black-Cockatoos arrive and feed in small groups, while White White-throated Needletails, cross the sky in massive flocks. Musk Lorikeets, Restless Flycatchers and Buff-rumped Thombills may also be present.
Tiger, White-lipped, Copperhead and Brown snakes will become more active as will Blotched Blue-tongue Lizards and Weazel Skinks.
WILDLIFE
A corridor study
by Scott Baker
During 1988aproject was undertaken to determine theeffects that connective forest corridors have on the birdlife in remnant vegetation.
A comparative study was done between the Mullum Mullum bushland (which has an established vegetation corridor) and Blackburn Lake Sanctuary (which is completely surrounded by suburbia and therefore isolated from other forest)
Both sites were of comparable size, geogaphic location, and habitat. Only species where actual habitat requirements were apparently adequate at both sites were included in the survey.
Effectively all variables excluding the wildlife corridor, were eliminated.
Of the 100 or so native species of birds that regularly visit or reside within the Mullum Mullum bushland site, 28 of these were absent or in significantly lower numbers at Blackburn Lake, despite habitat requirements being common to both areas.
It was shown that 23 (82%) of the species from this total were migratory or nomadic, clearly indicating the special importance of such corridors for birds that regularly move in and out of areas in accordance to food and general habitat availability.
No species were found at Blackburn Lake that did not also occur in the Mullum Mullum region.
In summary it is evident that forest corridors act as a life-link for many species of birds and almost certainly other animals and plants within forest reserves such as at the Mullum Mullum. Without such connections many species obviously cease to exist in these situations.
A CRITICAL REVIEW
By Lawrle Conole
In this critical review 'of comments on likely biological effects of the eastern corridor road development for the RCA by Dr Charles Meredith, Lawrie Conole questions some of his conclusions and the criteria used to arrive at those conclusions.
Species of significance
Birds
As Meredith points out, the species richness of the bird fauna in the Koonung and Mul-lum Mullum Creeks is high and of high significance in the context of the Melbourne region. Meredith utilises recognised, published criteria to determine national and state significance (Burbidge & Jenkins 1987; Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands 1987). For regional and local significance there are no such sources, and Meredith utilises his own knowledge, complemented by Emison etal (1987) and Aston & Balmford(1978).
There are no birds of national significance recorded for this area. There are four birds of state significance: Regent Hon-eyeater. Square-tailed Kite, Peregrine Falcon and Latham’s Snipe. Meredith describes the Regent Honeyeater and Square-tailed Kite as vagrants of no real ecological significance. The Peregrine Falcon and Latham’s snipe he describes in terms of the study area being poor snipe habitat, and non-breeding habitat for the falcon. Certainly the Square-tailed Kite is a vagrant of little local significance, blit the same can not be said for the Regent honeyeater. This rare and little known honeyeater is known to be drawn into the Melbourne region to feed on flowering Manna Gums along watercourses - witness the recent incursion into the Warrandyte and Plenty Gorge area. As such the study area must be regarded as important for the long term future of the Regent Honeyeater in the metropolitan area. The proposed wetland development at B ushy Creek could possibly enhance habitat values for Latham’s Snipe. The Mullum Mullum bushland whilst non-breeding habitat for the Peregrine Falcon, should be regarded as important foraging habitat.
Meredith describes the Powerful Owl as only of local significance because it is only a visitor to the area. He says that if resident it would be of regional significance. I disagree strongly on the basis that Powerful Owls need very large territories indeed in
linear forest habitats. In such a situation, the owls might only visit extremes of that territory on an infrequent timetable. My experience with Powerful Owls and other nocturnal birds suggests that the species is under-recorded in the area in any case. Powerful Owls require extensive areas of gully and slope forests of mature, hollow trees to provide their prey which is largely arboreal mammals such as Common Ringtail Possums, Sugar gliders and Brush-tailed Phas-cogales.
Mammals
The presence of Koalas, although not resident, is significant at the regional and local level. Sugar Gliders are regionally significant The statement by Meredith that Sugar gliders survive in rural roadside remnants gives no assurance that they will survive the road development in the Mullum Mullum bushland. To survive in this area presumes that there will be an adequate reservoir population surviving nearby in the event the local population becomes extinct. It also presumes that sufficient mature trees for nesting and suitable habitat for foraging remain, further it presumes that an adequate corridor for dispersal will survive. In reference to the Eastern Grey Kangaroo and Swamp Wallaby, Meredith describes their presence as of local significance. He also suggests that if they survive the road development, they would probably soon habituate to traffic noise. He says that human utilisation of the area could be as, or more, disturbing than the development. These statements are completely without foundation in fact. It is equally likely that the roadworks will drive the kangaroos and wallabies out of the area; and in the event that they did return and habituate to traffic wpuld soon be wiped out by roadkill mortality.
Significance of the biological corridor
Once again, Meredith attempts to assign regional and local significance based on his own, unexplained criteria, he describes the
Mullum Mullum Creek as of high regional significance; and the Koonung Creek of local significance. The Koonung is rated of lower significance because of lower habitat values. The two creek systems should be regarded as one highly significant corridor; as one is integral to the effectiveness of the other.
Disturbance by noise and light
In reference to birds, Meredith cites several sources (Blokpoel 1976, Slater 1980) to show that birds habituate to loud noise. He is operating in the total absence of researched facts when he suggests that in the long term mammals would do likewise. There are no data to back this up. Indeed I would imagine that the last thing we would want is for large mammals to habituate to traffic and then become a road hazard. After habituation it is likely that high roadkill mortality would result. Meredith states that he knows of no research into the effects of street lighting on fauna. He then says that given the proposed design for this lighting (unexplained in the report) he would expect the effects to be minimal. There is no basis for this statement. He quotes the examples of birds and mammals that are common around well-lit situations in the bush such as forestry camps, tourist resorts and the like. This example is totally irrelevant to a suburban forest remnant with a road through it. The animals around places such as Meredith mentioned are advantaged by free food handouts, and are encouraged to become tame for various reasons. Animals in suburban remnants are under enough environmental and human-caused stress that it is rarely in their interests to become tame. In any case, unlike the large forest block, the suburban remnant has a finite resource of tameable animals. Pets at tourist resorts etc. are Expendable another will always take its place. The effects of noise and street lighting on mammals, other than common city dwellers such as possums and bats, is totally unknown.
Revegetation and landscaping
I concur with Meredith when he states the
importance of revegetating to restore degraded and damaged forest habitats. I agree that the use of indigenous local flora is absolutely essential, and that the use of non-indigenous natives (eg. popular Western Australian species) should be deplored. It is of the highest importance that large, mature, hollow, local species of trees be retained.
such as the 100 Acres and Blackburn Lake forest reserves. Meredith failed to set the Mullum Mullum bushland in a local context. His comments on the likely effects of road construction works, noise and street lighting on the fauna are unsatisfactory. There are no data to support his contentions that the effects will probably be minimal, and probably reversible due to habitation.
References
Aston, H.I. & Balmford R. A., 1978, A bird Atlas of the Melbourne Region, Victorian Ornithological Research Group.
Blokpoel, H., 1976, Bird hazards to aircraft, Clarke, Irwin Co. Ltd.
Burbidge A. A., & Jenkins, R.W.G., 1987, Endangered Vertebrates of Australia
Conclusion
Meredith has failed to explain satisfactorily his criteria for assigning local and regional significance. I disagree with several of his classifications of significant fauna, and on the relative significance of the Mullum Mullum and Koonung Creeks. The fauna of the area is relatively rich and diverse and compares favourably with areas such as the Dandenong Valley Metropolitan Park and Warrandyte State Park, and exceeds areas
The effect of the road construction in the fust instance will be devastation of important mature forest. This will displace significant fauna - some species may be permanently lost. If any large mammals remain or return, they will most likely be lost to roadkill mortality. The effects of noise, street lighting and altered hydrology on flora and fauna are largely unknown, but are likely to be immensely detrimental.
and its Island Territories, ANPWS
Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands, 1987, Conservation in Victoria: plants and animals at risi.Emison W.B., Beardsell, C.M., Norman F.I., Loyn, R.H. & Bennett, S.C. \981, Atlas of Victorian Birds, DCFL/RAOU
Slater, R J.B., 1980, Bird behaviour and scaring by sounds, Wright, E.N. (ed) Bird problems in agriculture, BCPC Publications
EASTERN CORRIDOR ROAD DEVELOPMENT - COMMENTS ON BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS by Dr Charles Meredith
Summary
1. A number of fauna species of significance in the area. None of the species are of more than regional or local significance and it is unlikely that the road will cause the loss of ail of them. Their future occurrence is largely dependant on the maintenance or enhancement of the biological corridor,
2. Mullum Mullum Creek valley is a biological corridor of high significance in the Melbourne region. Careful planning and revegetation will be required to minimise disruption to the corridor by the proposed road. The Koonung Creek valley is also a corridor, but is of lower significance due to its more fragmented and degraded habitat. Planting according to the landscape concept plan would improve the value of the valley as a biological corridor.
3. Revegetation and landscaping are critical forthe maintenance of the viability of the corridor and the continued occurrence of much of the fauna. 1 strongly recommend that the RCA landscape concept plan be implemented and that detailed plans be prepared in consultation with a botanist knowledgeable in re-vegetaion techniques and that local stock be used at all times.
4. The effects of noise and lighting on the fauna are likely to be small in the long term, although noise will have some effect on some species, mainly during the construction phase.
1. Introduction
The data used for this assessment have been obtained from the documents listed in the Bibliography and from a one-day field inspection on 16 august 1988. The field inspection was purely to gain a general appreciation of the environment of the road corridor, and no field survey work was undertaken.
This report concentrates on the fauna of the area and is in no way a botanical assessment. 1 have, however, made some comments on the vegetation, mainly in terms of its value as habitat.
2. Species of Significance
2.1. Birds
The species richness of the bird fauna is high. Based on the
bird list compiled by Baker and Crosbie and the list provided by the Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands (DCFL) Atlas of Victorian Wildlife database, 137 species have been recorded from the Koonung Creek and Mullum Mullum Creek valleys. Of these, ten are introduced species and five are aviary escapes. A list of 122 native birds is very high for an area of urban bushland and is of very high significance in the context of the Melbourne region. It emphasises the effectiveness of the valleys as a wildlife corridor.
In terms of individual species, significance needsto be related to a particular geographical context (e.g. national, state, re-gional, local) and to the status of the species (e.g. whether it is endangered, naturally rare but not endangered, currently safe but vulnerable to population decline, resident or vagrant, etc.). Lists of significant species are available forthe national level (Burbidge and Jenkins 1987) and for the state level (Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands 1987). I have assessed regional and local significance on the basis of my knowledge and experience of the Victorian bird fauna, supplemented by the Atlas of Citorian Birds (Emison et ai. 1987) and the Bird Atlas of the Melbourne Region (Aston and Balmford 1978).
There are no birds of national significance recorded for the area.
Four species occur that are listed on the DCFL state list. Two of these are either nomadic or occur as vagrants in the area (Regent Honeyeater, Square-tailed Kite) and, while of considerable interest to local birdwatchers, their occurrence is of no real ecological significance. In fact, the Regent Honeyeater record is apparently from the residential area, not the road reserve. There is no reason to believe that these species would not occur again as occasional vagrants following the construction of the road.
The two other species listed as being of state significance are the Peregrine Falcon and Latham'sSnipe. Neither are endangered or rare in Victoria but are listed by DCFL as being potentially vulnerable to various threats. The road area is not a breeding site for the falcon and is poor habitat for the migratory snipe, so it Is not of significance forthe maintenance of the population of either. The development of a wetland at Bushy Creek, as proposed in the landscape concept plan,
could in fact enhance the area as snipe habitat.
Three other species of interest are vagrants to the area (Diamond Dove, Spangled Drongo, Scarlet Honeyeater). Again, while exciting for local ornithologists, their occurrence is not of ecological significance (other than as further indicators of the effectiveness of the two valleys as a biological corridor). Three migratory/nomadic species that occur in the area regularly (Rose Robin, Pink Robin, Australian King Parrot) I consider to be of regional significance for the Melbourne region, Their future occurrence will be dependant on the degree to which the biological corridor can be maintained and on the survival or creation of areas of good forest habitat.
Two species that I consider likely to be occasional visitors to the area rather than resident are of interest, the Australian Hobby is arguably not significant at the regional level but it is certainly of local interest. The Powerful Owl would be of very high regional significance if it were resident, but as a visitor it is of local significance.
• I consider a further eight species to be of interest or significance. All would be expected to be resident species. Of regional significance are the occurrence of Lewin’s Honeyeater, White's Thrush (breeds in the area), Red-browed Treecreeper, Olive Whistler, Azure Kingfisher and Bell Miner (bellbird). The Bell Miner, while common where it still occurs, must be considered restricted and vulnerable anywhere in the urban environment. Of local significance are the presence of breeding Brown Goshawks and of Collared Sparrowhawks. All these species indicate the value of the remaining natural and semi-natural areas as bird habitat.
2.2 Mammals
Six species of native mammal have been recorded for the area (Common Brushtail Possum, Common Ringtail Possum, Sugar Glider, Koala, Eastern Grey Kangaroo, "wallaby” -presumably the Swamp Wallaby). The brushtail and ringtail possums are common throughout much of the urban area and are not significant. The Koala is rated as "requiring careful monitoring” in the state-level DCFL listing. It is rare in the road area and probably not resident. Its occurrence is significant at the regional and local level.
The presence of Sugar Gliders is significant at the regional level This species frequently occurs in remnant roadside vegetation in rural areas, so may not be particularly threatened by the construction of the road.
The occurrence of the kangaroo and wallaby is of local significance. Of the mammals, it is these two large, diurnal species that are most likely to be affected by the noise and disturbance of the construction phase. It is hard to predict if they would return after construction, although, given suitable vegetation cover, some may return. If they became resident, they would probably soon habituate to the traffic noise. Disturbance by humans using the area for recreation may well be equally or more disturbing to these animals.
2.3. Reptiles and amphibians
No reptile or amphibian species of significance occur in the road area and surrounds. However, the relatively high number of species recorded from the Koonung Creek valley has been assessed as being of regional significance by Mr C. Beardsall (DCFL, Urban Fauna Study). Mullum Mullum Creek has not been adequately surveyed for reptiles, but it is likely to support a similar or richer fauna. The effect of the road on these generally common species is hard to assess, but is likely to be significant where the natural ground layer (low plants, rocks, leaf litter, fallen timber) is disturbed or removed. Such ml-
crohabitat is difficult to recreate but the landscaping should attempt to do so.
3. Significance of the biological corridor
The Mullum Mullum Creek valley is an important and effective biological corridor running from the Yarra valley should also be viewed as being an extension of this corridor even further into the city; although it is much less continuous and its habitat value is lower. The two valleys are separated only by a narrow ridge area at Park Road and clearly function as a single corridor for the more mobile species (birds, some mammals).
Such corridors are of high significance for nature conservation. It Is much easier to maintain viable populations of native species in habitat remnants if .there is a corridor connecting such areas with larger areas of native vegetation. This allows constant recolonisation to counteract the natural chance extinctions that happen in habitat isolates.
In an urban context, such corridors are of particular significance. It is difficult to rate the significance of these corridors objectively, but, judged on the basis of the species that occur In each, I would rate the Mullum Mullum Creek valley as being of high significance in the Melbourne region, while the Koonung Creek valley is of local significance.
The effectiveness of corridors is largely dependant on two factors: the continuity of habitat, and the condition of the habitat. The effects of the arterial road must be considered in the light of these factors.
(i) Mullum Mullum Creek
The habitat in the Mullum Mullum Creek corridor is generally continuous in the area affected by the road until it meets the proposed Ringwood Bypass, where the presence of both overstorey and understorey declines dramatically. The maximum effect of the proposed road on the value of the corridor would occur where the road construction causes an actual break in the habitat or narrows it significantly.
One key area is where the road crosses Mullum Mullum Creek. It is important that the bridge span here is great enough to minimise disruption to the very high quality habitatthat Is found along the creek at this point. As detailed engineering designs are not yet done, I cannot assess whether the current design will achieve this. It is particularly important that every care is taken during bridge construction to avoid or minimise damage to the vegetation. This crossing is perhaps the most critical factor in maintaining the effectiveness of the Mullum Mullum Creek biological corridor.
The other key area on Mullum Mullum Creek is the area parrallel to Chaim Crt, opposite the Yarran Dheran reserve and Schwerkolt Cottage. The road here (between quarry road and Deep Creek Road), while avoiding the reserve and cottage areas, will remove much of the very good natural bushland that occurs on the north side of the creek. Because of the good condition of the understorey in this natural vegetation, it will act as a more effective corridor for some species than the adjacent Yarran Dheran reserve. Thus, the careful retention of as much native vegetation north of the creek as possible and the absolute minimisation of construction damage is vital. The steep nature of the valley sides will make these objectives difficult to achieve. However, the presence of the Yarran Dheran reserve, will mitigate the effects of the road on the corridor significantly.
At the Deep Creek Road end of this section, the loss of the vegetation north of the creek combined with the large grassy area south of the creek at Schwerkolt Cottage will mean that the corridor will be very narrow at this point. I strongly recom-
10 KOONUNG & MULLUM CREEKS
mend the revegetation of some or all of that grassed area to maximise the effective width of the corridor at this point.
The gully that runs from Mullum Mullum Creek past Hillcrest Reserve and up to the Park Road ridge form the corridor connecting the Mullum Mullum Creek valley with the Koonung Creek valley. The lower part of this gully is covered by natural vegetation in good condition. Every effort should be made to minimise impacts on this vegetation. The upper part of the gully (adjacent to Savaris Crt) consists of grass and pine trees. Appropriate planting with native species would greatly in* 5. crease the value of this area as a corridor, and the plantings in the Hillcrest Reserve are an excellent start.
The habitat values in the Ringwood Bypass area of the valley could be improved by appropriate plantings and every effort should be made to retain mature native trees where possible.
(ii) Koonung Creek
The Koonung Creek valley is a series of habitat islands (mostly comprising remnant native trees, but with some areas of valuable lowerstorey habitat) separated by grassland, pine groves, etc. Despite this, It still acts as a biological corridor. It has the potential to be much more effective with appropriate revegeta-tion and landscaping. Overall, I strongly support the general landscaping concepts proposed, but the detailed planning should involve a qualified botanist with experience in revegetation with local indigenous species. If this is done, and done well, the corridor value of the Koonung Creek valley will be increased for many species of wildlife.
Special attention should be paid to upgrading the Park Road ridge connection to Mullum Mullum Creek. Another critical area will be the section between Springvale Road and Mitcham Road. This area Is very narrow and will have steep batters.
Here the road could well constitute a significant break in the continuity of the corridor, particularly given the likely problems in revegetating steep batters. Careful planning and great care in construction will be critical. In general, all steep areas along the route will need careful attention.
The Joseph Street bush constitutes the best native habitat along the valley and will be completely removed by the proposed road. It would be worth avoiding this area if at all possible. There is a reserve of native vegetation closely adjacent and outside the road reserve and the gardens of the nearby houses retain a substantial amount of bushland character. The presence of these areas will help maintain the corridor in this section.
I strongly support the concept of creating a wetland at Bushy Creek. This will greatly upgrade the area as waterbird habitat.
Also, consideration might be given to revegetating some of the naturally swampy areas that sill support groves of remnant Melaleuca with that species.
4. Disturbance by noise and light
There will undoubtedly be an initial impact on the fauna due to noise, especially during construction. However, as evidenced by the efforts to scare birds away from farms and airports using noises ranging from explosions to the birds’ own distress calls, birds rapidly habituate to noise, even loud noise, particularly when it continues over a long period (Blokpoel 1976; Slater 1980).
The effects on mammals are less well-known. It is likely that the large mammals that are occasionally seen (kangaroo, wallaby, koala) will be sensitive to noise, especially during the construction phase. The smaller species are unlikely to be affected. If kangaroos returned to the area after construction and became resident, it is likely that they would habituate to the road noise.
I know of no studies on the effects of street lighting on fauna, but, given the proposed lighting design, I would expect these to be minimal. In my experience, birds still roost and nocturnal animals are still common around well-lit buildings in bush areas (e.g. holiday and ski resorts, forestry camps etc). In studies at airports, lights generally act as an attractantto birds (by attracting insects on which they feed, or by providing perches - van Tets et al 1977; Blokpoel 1976). Even revolving or flashing lights may be ignored by birds (Blokpoel 1976). Revegetation and landscaping
The importance of landscaping and revegetation from a nature conservation point of view is very high. With appropriate plantings, the value of the degraded areas for wildlife could be greatly increased and the damage to natural areas partly redressed. It is important that detailed plans for landscaping be done in consultation with a botanist and that local seed and stock is used. The RCA has informed me that they intend to engage a botanist for this purpose.
I believe that there are very real dangers in not using local indigenous stock for plantings. Exotics and non-local native species (e.g. Western Australian species) may invade remaining native bushland and, in some cases, may not be as good fauna habitat as the local flora. The landscape plan’s recommendation that some replanting with exotics should be done to ensure that the planting blends with the current environment needs to be carefully considered. Suitable plantings and landscaping have the potential to improve the value of parts of the road route as a biological corridor.
While some planting of exotics in some areas may be compat-• ible with this, it needs to be assessed from a nature conservation point of view as well as from a landscape point of view. Potential dangers include the selection of invasive species that may spread down the corridor and into more natural areas, and the selection of exotic species that are poor "habitat trees". It should be noted that the use of non-local native plants (e.g. Western Australian species) can lead to the rapid invasion of remnant natural vegetation by these species. Every care should be taken to avoid this In plantings close to native bushland.
I strongly support the recommendation to retain as many mature trees as possible, and that undergrounding of the creek in some areas will aid this. The creek itself is of little biological significance.
6. Bibliography
• Aston, H.l, & R.A. Balmford. 1978. A Bird Atlas of the Melbourne Region. VORG. • Atlas of Victorian Wildlife. 1988, Printout of fauna list for Mullum Mullum Creek (Park Road-Warrandyte Road) and Koonung Creek (Doncaster Road-Springvale Road). Department of Conservation, Forests and Lands. • Baker, Scott & Nick Crosbie. 1987. Avifauna of the Mullum Mullum Creek Valley. Unpubl. bird list. Blokpoel, H. 1976. Bird Hazards to Aircraft. Clarke, Irwin Co. Ltd. Burbidge, A.A. & R. W. G. Henkins. 1987. Endangered Vertebrates of Australia and its Island Territories. ANPWS. • Champion, R. & P. Thompson. 1974. The Koonung-Mullum Forestway - A Plan for Action. • Department of Conservation in Victoria. 1: Plants and Animals at Risk. • Emison, W.B., C.M. Beardwell, FJ. Norman, R. H. Loyn & S.C. Bennett 1987. Atlas of Victorian Birds. DCFL/RAOU. RCA. 1987. Eastern Arterial Road - Doncaster to Ringwood. Environment Effects Statement. • RCA 1987. Ringwood Bypass. Environment Effects Statement ■ Slater, R.J.B. 1980. Bird behaviour and scaring by sounds. IN: Wright E.N. (ed). Bird Problems in Agriculture. BCPC Publications. - Van Tets, G.F. etal. 1977. Guide to the Recognition and Reduction of Aerodrome Bird Hazards. AGPS Voorhees, Alan M. & Partners Pty. Ltd. 1976. Eastern Corridor Study. Technical Report No. 6 - Ecological. • Various submissions to the EESs.
FLORA & FAUNA GUARANTEE
by Nick Crosble
The purpose of the Flora and Fauna Guarantee is to promote Conservation of Victoria’s native flora and fauna (as stated in Section 1 of Act).
Specifically it aims to conserve flora and fauna taxon communities which are in danger of extinction. The Act also provides protection legislation for a taxon of flora or fauna which is below the taxanomic level of a species (i.e. a sub-species) and a Community of flora or fauna which is narrowly defined because of its taxanomic composition, environmental conditions or geography.
To date, no comprehensive faunal or floristic inventories have been prepared for either of the Mullum Mullum and Koonung Ck Valleys. This situation is unacceptable. Without fundamental baseline data any development proposal in the valleys could threaten a species, sub-species or rare community without the knowledge of the proponents, an environmental scientist - or anyone for that matter. Yet biological consultants employed by the R.C.A. in regards to the Eastern Arterial Rd proposal make no mention that their environmental impact evaluation is based on a serious lack of raw data.
In this instance the objectives of the Flora and Fauna Guarantee may be failed because of the current inability to list all threatened species or taxa under Schedule 2 of the act, making it more difficult to list the R.C.A. road proposal under Schedule 3 (Potentially Threatening Processes).
Obviously it is not possible to conserve Taxa or Communities which are threatened when their existence in an area is not known. The future of the Eltham Copper Butterfly, for instance, might be ominous if its existence in Eltham wasn’t known.
We lack crucial baseline data on the following organisations
• Invertebrates
Excepting Butterflies, of which there is scant and incomprehensive information)
• Mammals
No mist netting for Bats
No trapping for aboreal mammals (e.g.
Tuan, Feather-tailed Glider etc)
No thorough trapping for small terrestrial mammals (e.g. Bush Rat, Antechinus) Little information of the other mammals, esp. Macropods.
• Vascular Plants
inventories are far from comprehensive (as pg 3, Appendix III of report)
• Non-vascular plants
No documentation of non-vascular plant
species found with the valleys.
However, whilst we are starved of data, preliminary surveys by Beardsell & Fraud (1988) and Baker and Crosbie (1988) highlight the presence of a number of possibly threatened species and also an unusual collection of three floristic communities (Ref. particularly to vegetation section of Beard-sell and Frood)
Threatened species
King Parrot - regular visitor to the Mullum Mullum Valley, requires nesting hollows.
Peregrine Falcon - the valleys would probably constitute important Eastern suburbs hunting terrain. It is not commonly recorded.
Powerful Owl - a pair recorded in the Mullum Mullum Valley fairly recently, it is thought to be an irregular visitor, required old Eucalypts with hollows suitable for nesting.
Regent Honeyeater - a recent record of a bird in a suburban garden less than 100 metres from the Mullum Mullum Valley. With less than 200 birds remaining in Victoria it is our second most threatened avifaunal species, the area containing the M.M. and Koonung Ck Valleys has a history of Regent Honeyeater habituation.
Square-tailed Kite - two records, 1984. Its conservation status in indetermined
Latham s Snipe - birds have been known to pass through the M.M.V. on occasions.
Koala - moves through the Mullum Mullum Ck Valley on a regular basis.
Chaostola Skipper, Small ant Blue Butterfly - According to Beardsell and Fraud (1988) both these rare butterfly species have been recorded in the Mullum Mullum. The skipper may have been eliminated due to the chronic depletion of its larval food - plant. Thatch Saw-sedge. The ant blue is known from only two other locations in Victoria and one of these is under threat. Further loss of habitat may eliminate other butterfly species at the Mullum Mullum.
The Mullum Mullum Valley would ap-
pear to have an excellent butterfly fauna (Michael Braby pers comm). Further studies are essential.
Vegetation Communities - according to Beardsell and Frood (1988) “no existing reserve in the outer eastern suburbs of Melbourne contains more than two vegetation communities.
The Mullum Mullum Valley contains three:
1. riparian and gully forest (Manna Gum - Swam Gum)
2. sheltered slopes shrubby forest (Narrow-leaf, Peppermint, Messmate)
3. dry slopes grassy forest and sclero-phyll woodland (box-stringybark)
The occurrence of these communities might, in relationship to the Flora and Fauna Guarantee, be of geographical interest They certainly illustrate the intact nature of the Mullum Mullum Valley ecosystem.
The above findings are very encouraging and they tend to “bear out” one’s original impression of the bushland contained (particularly) in the Mullum Mullum Ck Valley
- that it is “good” bush.
Conclusion
• The eastern arterial road proposal will (literally) destroy nearly all of the significant vegetation/fauna habitat contained within the Mullum Mullum.
• Comprehensive flora and fauna studies must be undertaken to assess the probable environmental impact of a proposal like the eastern arterial road.
• The Koonung and Mullum Mullum Ck. Valleys must be protected in their entirety to ensure the conservation of rare species/communities that do, and might be shown to (with further research), exist in the valleys.
• Failure to totally protectjhe M.M. & Koonung Ck. Valleys from the E.A.R. and like developments could conflict with the F. &F.G.
• The F.F.G. should be employed to ensure that the conservation values of the valleys are preserved indefinitely.
References
Flora and Fauna Guarantee Act. No47 of 1988
Beardsell, C. & Fraud, D. (1988). Eastern Freeway extension - Ringwood By-pass link proposal, (non-doctored copy published in this report).
Baker, S & Crosbie, N. (1988) - avifaunal data of the Mullum Ck. Valley, Heads Rd
- to Deep Ck Road (CF&L data base).
PROTECTING THE ENVIRONMENT
A conservation strategy for Victoria, June 1987
by Scott Baker
The underlying principal of the Victorian Conservation Strategy is to ‘achieve sustainable development through conservation’ (pg9). That is ‘development that can continue to provide social and economic benefits for as long as they are desired’ (pg 106) while ensuring that with any future project ‘ecological diversity is maintained so that species can adapt to and survive adverse environment change’ (pg9)
Any construction must therefore ‘be properly matched to the characteristics of the ecosystem’ (pg 9) and certainly not threaten the continued existence of any of the natural inhabitants of the area.
The strategy sets out philosophies and guidelines for the government to supposedly act upon to ensure ‘ecologically viable samples of all ecosystems are protected’ (pg2). ‘In releasing this strategy the government is committing itself to protecting this unique heritage so that it can be enjoyed, not just by this generation, but also those that follow ’ (pg7)
‘Conservation .... is necessary for sustainable development, for quality of life and
for protection of nature for its intrinsic worth’ (pg 9) ‘More than 32 per cent of Victorians live in urban settlements’ (pg3), therefore the ‘protection and enhancement of urban open spaces and waterways will be a high priority’ (pg3). The government ‘will also prevent further inappropriate development on the urban fringe and encourage use of public transport’ (pg 72)
The Koonung and Mullum Mullum creek valleys are of exceptionally high recreational and conservation value.
If ‘this is the first Government in a generation to recognise that our urban waterways are not just drains but major conservation and recreation assets’ (pg71) how can they seriously contemplate bulldozing creekland environments that are within walking distance of well over 100,000 people and are regarded as having perhaps the richest diversity of wildlife within the urban region?
‘Specifically, the Government will:
• prepare management plans and introduce controls to protect significant parkland form inappropriate, incremental or large-
scale developments of changes in use incompatible with its parkland character;
• identify significant fauna and flora in urban open spaces and prepare management plans and statutory controls to ensure their protection;
• develop a linear open space network in the greater metropolitan area. This will increase the amount of continuous parkland for recreation, landscape and conservation purposed by using waterways, existing parks, the foreshore, redundant rail and road reservations’ (pg 76-77)
Certainly, if such a strategy, which prides itself on ensuring the protection, enhancement and extension of recreational and conservation regions for quality of life and intrinsic value of flora and fauna - especially in an urban context, and especially waterways in the urban area, does not pro-tect the Koonung and Mullum Mullum crc< k valleys from destruction, it must be regarded as a very false, powerless type of governmental propaganda, and it value seriously questioned.
GREEN BELTS and URBAN WATERWAYS
by Darcy Duggan
The proposal to construct the Eastern arterial road along the Koonung/Mullum Mul-lum creek valley, involves one of the largest and most extensive road construction projects to be undertaken within the Eastern suburbs. As such it will have a major impact on the environment and residential areas along its route.
Of overwhelming concern is the substantial loss and degradation in quality of existing public open space and wildlife habitat within this metropolitan region of Melbourne.
. The purpose of this article is to broaden community awareness of these concerns regarding the long term impact of the proposed road and to highlight the contradictions and conflict that exists with current Government policies.
Both the Koonung and Mullum Mullum creek valleys are of major regional importance to the Eastern suburbs. Although both valleys have suffered extensive clearing and loss of vegetation in the past, they represent one of the last major waterways within the region which has not been substantially altered through the construction of roadways, powerlines or extensive handling of the creeks, as has been the fate of most other waterways throughout Melbourne.
Brief descriptions of the creek valleys are as follows:
Landscape and recreation values
Both creek valleys comprise a variety of landscape features and areas of high quality recreation opportunities and experience
Koonung Creek
The Koonung creek is a small creek which joins the Yarra river near Bulleen. The creek valley is characterised by large open grassy flood plain areas, which are now used for a range of active and passive recreation activi-
ties. Although much of the valley has been highly modified, the creek valley is still relatively secluded and undeveloped, and contains a number of significant pockets of remnant bushland and wetland sites scattered along its length.
Mullum Mullum Creek
In contrast, the Mullum Mullum creek cuts through steep hilly terrain to form a deep, narrow valley. The enclosed character of the valley changes progressively as the creek meanders through broader gullies and flood plains before entering the Yarra river downstream of Warrandyte.
Substantial areas of remnant bushland have survived along the creek valley providing habitat to an outstanding variety of native wildlife species. Because of the degree of species diversity supported along the valley the Mullum Mullum creek is of major regional significance and is regarded as one of the most important wildlife corridors left in Melbourne.
Green belt - urban wildlife corridor
Both creek valleys are therefore of major regional significance within the eastern Metropolitan area, providing an essential linear reserve or green belt connection to the Yarra river and other more isolated parkland areas. Mullum Mullum creek is especially important in providing a vital and major bushlink with a series of bushland remnants within the Eastern suburbs including Antonio Park and Blackburn Lake.
Open space network
In addition to the function and value of the creek valleys in providing a green bush for wildlife, they are equally important as interconnected areas of open space for public recreation. As such they form a strategic part of a network of open space for this region of Melbourne providing a diversity of recreation opportunities.
Impact of the arterial road
It is possible to identify two broad types of socio-environmental effects the proposed arterial road will have.
1. At a local level, the road will result in a substantial loss of public open space and greatly reduce the quality of remaining open space and wildlife habitat.
These changes will directly effect adjoining residents.
Contemporary studies also suggest the proposed road will further exasperate traffic congestion
2. On a broader level, the arterial road will contribute to increased use of motor vehicle based transport which has been identified as a major contributing factor to global environmental problems such as the greenhouse effect and pollution.
It is essential to view these issues within the context of current public concern and values.
Changing public attitudes
A fundamental change in community perceptions and attitudes towards public open space and the value and importance of urban waterways, has taken place in recent limes.
The former attitude towards urban waterways as cheap and convenient repositories for urban services such as powerlines and freeways is no longer relevant or acceptable to the community.
The controversy surrounding the proposed Brunswick Richmond SEC power-line, and the outcome of the current power-line. Review hearings have clearly demonstrated this fact.
Urban nature ways are now regarded as an extremely valuable resource, that are an integral part of an urban environment, and worthy of protection and restoration.
This change in community perceptions has been brought about by a number of different factors. Most notable have been the changing demographic patterns and recreational needs of the community.
Of particular relevance in the increase in community awareness and concern regarding the incremental and often dramatic loss of our natural heritage which has accompanied the urban sprawl throughout Melbourne over the last 15-20 years.
Government policy changes
Largely as a result of growing public concern and recognition of these issues the State Government has prepared a number of important strategies and policies to address these matters.
Policies which are directly affected by the proposed arterial road include:
• Metropolitan Open Space Strategy (1988)
• Victoria’s Conservation Strategy (1987)
• Urban Conservation Strategy (1988)
• Victoria’s Economic Strategy (1987)
• Metropolitan Strategy Shaping Melbourne’s Future (1987)
■ Wetland Strategy (1987)
Metropolitan open space strategy
The policies outlined in this Government strategy are of special relevance to the arterial road proposal.
The strategy outlines the revival of an early vision for recreation development within Melbourne, originally proposed in 1929 by the Metropolitan Town Planning Commission.
This highly innovative and farsighted plan proposed the development of a system of parklands based largely on Melbourne’s
waterways. Tragically for various historical reasons, this plan was never implemented.
The main themes of the Open Space Strategy are:-
• To expand bush and open space to create a network of parklands throughout Metropolitan Melbourne and into the adjoining countryside.
• Ensure open space is fairly distributed throughout Melbourne, and to increase public open space in suburbs which are relatively deficient.
• Improve the quality and diversity of recreation opportunities to the community.
• Protect valuable natural, cultural and landscape features and recreational areas from alienation and inappropriate developments.
• Increase community involvement in planning and management of open space, and improve coordination and public awareness of its value and potential.
• Set aside enough recreation land now for future generations and to make the most of existing opportunities before they are lost.
Conflict and contradictions
When one examines the proposed Eastern arterial road within the context of this strategy and other related Government policies for the protection of the environment, it is clearly evident the arterial road proposal is not only in direct conflict with the spirit and interest of these policies, but a blatant contradiction of existing government policy.
Existing open space and wildlife values
The existing Koonung/Mullum Mullum creek valleys provide a diversity of recreation opportunities including high quality natural bushland especially along sections of the Mullum Mullum creek.
The increasing importance and value of natural areas to the community for recreation can not be overstated. Yet only token acknowledgment of the features has been made in reviewing the arterial road proposal.
Quality of open space and wildlife habitat
Proponents of the arterial road argue that a linear parkland will be maintained along the existing corridor adjacent to the arterial road to provide wildlife habitat and recreation space.
Scant attention or acknowledgment has been given however to the significant reduction in quality of open space and wildlife habitat that will inevitably occur as a result of noise and visual intrusion of the road on the surrounding valleys and adjoining residential areas.
Although the RCA has proposed to incorporate sound mounds and other noise attenuated features into the design of the road, to minimise the impact of noise and visual intrusion, comparison of the effectiveness of these measures on the SE arterial road along Gardiner’s creek suggest they will have only a marginal effect on noise.
Case studies regarding impact of freeways on parkland values
A number of direct comparisons can be made between Koonung/Mullum Mullum creeks and Yarra Bend/Studley Park, a major and unique bushland park located within inner Melbourne which is bisected by the E. freeway.
Examination of the impact the Eastern freeway has had on the overall values of the park, provides a classic case study in which the biological values (habitat/wildlife corridor) and quality of recreational experience (urban bushland environment) have been profoundly and irreversibly degraded.
It is inevitable therefore, that despite proposals to “minimise traffic noise” the present undisturbed and in places high quality bushland experience found along many parts of the Mullum Mullum creek in particular, will be lost forever.
Open space strategy confirms Impact
The impact of freeways, major roads and associated urban development on recreation areas is clearly acknowledged by the Metropolitan Open Space Strategy. In addition to confirming the destruction of ecological and landscape values of an area, the strategy also acknowledges that parkland affected by these disturbance factors are much less attractive to people.
The resultant reduction in quality of recreation experience is cited as the primary reason for this observation.
Recreation studies - Importance of natural areas
For many people living in the city, the only chance they will often ever have to hear about and experience natural environment, is remnant urban bushland areas.
A number of recreation studies have also indicated a relatively high but unsatisfied demand for natural open space.
Children in particular, enjoy natural or unstructured areas for play as much as formal playgrounds.
This opportunity for many children has been lost however, due to the rapid destruction and urbanisation of bushy pockets that once existed throughout the suburbs.
What say have we given to our children in determining their recreational needs, especially given that children are the main users of urban parks and open space?
Untapped potential
Through sensitive management, revegetation and public participation, we as a com-
munity have the capacity to tap the potential that is within these creek valleys, and create an asset of major conservation and recreational importance to the Melbourne metropolitan region.
All we require is the will and foresight to achieve this goal. To do otherwise and lose this opportunity would be an indictment on us all.
Environmental protection and value judgements
Numerous Govt policies have stated the need to protect the general environment and specifically sites of conservation and heritage significance.
Section 5.5 Metropolitan Open Space Strategy states quite categorically:
“New roads or widenings will not be located within open space unless a significant public benefit can be demonstrated.”
What is the significant public benefit that will be derived from the construction of the arterial road along the proposed route?
A number of very serious concerns have also been raised in questioning the criteria used by the Government and Planning Appeals panel in defining these so called benefits.
The Environmental Effects Study undertaken by the RCA and supplementary studies done to examine environmental issues related to the potential impact of the arterial road, were grossly inadequate and failed dismally in fully addressing these concerns.
Secondly, how fair and representative of community concerns are the public consultative processes within the existing planning procedures?
The Powerline Review Panel have m ade a number of highly critical comments regarding the ineffective and unrepresentative nature of the consultative processes in relation to the powerline proposal. The same set of procedures were used for the arterial road hearings.
Given the major concerns that have been made in relation to these planning procedures, how much validity should be placed on the outcome of the planning appeal hearing report?
It is clearly apparent in examining the planning panels report despite submissions made to the hearing regarding global environmental concerns such as the Greenhouse effect. No consideration of these matters was made in determining the final recommendations?
Despite growing global concern of the greenhouse effect and other related ecological issues threatening this earth, why have
both the government and liberal opposition parties continued to deliberately ignore these issues, in determining the overall values of the arterial road proposal to the community at large?
Issues of this nature must be considered as they have a direct hearing on the proposed arterial road, which will encourage even greater use and dependence on fossil fuels and continued pollution of the environment (a major contributing factor to the Greenhouse effect).
The direction in which the RCA and present government are attempting to push society, is contrary to the future direction which has been acknowledged we should move towards i.e. the need to restructure society and reduce our dependency on fossil fuels.
Conclusion
- The Koonung/Mullum Mullum creek valleys are of major regional significance both as public open space and urban wildlife habitat.
- Urban waterways are an extremely valuable resource which belong to the people, and worthy of protection and restoration.
The E Arterial road proposal is contrary to a number of government policies formulated to protect open space and environmental values of Metropolitan Melbourne.
The proposal is also contrary to changing community values and perceptions of the values and importance of urban waterways for conservation and recreational use.
In addition to these issues, a number of serious concerns have also been raised regarding the effectiveness of the public consultative processes use in hearing this matter, and of the quality of environmental assessment criteria used in determining the environmental impact of the arterial road.
On the basis of the criteria used to assess the values of the proposed arterial road, it would seem that the further depletion of the Earth’s finite resources and continued destruction of the Earth's biosphere (our life support system) that will result, has been found acceptable by this government, in determining the “significant public benefit" to be derived from the arterial road.
FREEWAYS AND THE GREENHOUSE PROBLEM
by Darcy Duggan
To diverge briefly look from a planner perspective at the fundamental reasoning and rationale of the RCA in arguing the need for this freeway.
When this proposal was first put forward in the early 1950s the world was dramatically different to what it is today.
The 60s and 70s were the era when urban waterways were regarded as cheap and convenient for the siting of public utilities such as freeways and powerlines, and the greenhouse effect was still a theory.
Since that time we as a society have undergone major structural changes in terms of standards of living, increased awareness of health issues, and leisure time and the value of recreation and open space and qulaity of life issues.
We have also become far more aware of the degradative impact we are having on the earth biosphere as we rapidly deplete its finite resources. In recent time there has been a global awareness and concern regarding the Greenhouse effect and other issues which will directly affect our ability to survive on this planet.
At the recent world conference on the Greenhouse effect, there was an unequivocal recognition of the need to reduce our reliance upon the use of fossil fuels which are a major contributing factor to this problem.
We therefore need to radically rethink our dependence upon the motor car as a means of transport and to look for viable alternatives to providing transportation.
’We need to radically rethink our dependence upon the motor car as a means of transport and to look for viable alternatives to providing transportation. '
mmmm
What alternative have been investigated in addressing the problems of traffic congestion that the proposed freeway will support-edly solve?
What efforts have been made to stagger working hours, encourage car pooling etc to reduce peak congestion.
The freeway after all is really only designed to absorb peak hour traffic and flow.
The RCA is I believe out of step with reality and is trying to use a solution that may. have been appropriate to the 1970s to solve a problem which is no longer compatible with the future of this country.
A recent article in The Age outlines what I believe to be is the only viable direction for the future, and that is the design of an ecological city where there will be no automo-
biles. Where transport will be by public transport, bicycles or walking and emphasis will be on the protection and enhancement o.f the environment.
This is the reality of the future the 21st century which we are fast approaching. It is up to this society and our generation to lay the foundations for this to happen.
Just as I curse the short sightness and insensitivity of the planners that allowed the construction of the freeway through Yarra Bend Studley Park, so will future generations curse those that allow the loss of one of the last significant areas of native bushland within Melbourne to be destroyed for a freeway which has only a limited life expectancy.
Should this be allowed to happen it would be an indictment open us all and more particularly upon you the planning panel who sit in judgement in determining the fate of this project.
The burden of responsibility weights heavily upon you.
The Air Quality Study (AQS) associated with the extension of the Eastern Freeway has been undertaken because of concern expressed that the Koonung and Mullum Mullum valleys would be likely locations of high pollution levels. The Environmental Protection Authority also considers that air quality is a potential problem near major roads in Melbourne. The AQS undertaken for the 1987 Environmental Effects Statement (EES) on the Eastern Freeway extension considered both these factors, namely that the air stillness in the valleys could mean a concentration of pollutants on calm sunny days and also that motor vehicles on major roads provide a significant source of pollution.
Limited scope
The main outstanding criticism of the AQS is that it is a limited study of a complex subject which lacks the necessary comprehensive data to provide convincing conclusions. Nevertheless it reaches the unqualified conclusion that air quality in the valleys ‘will at all times remain within EPA guidelines and that the effect of the new road will be small.’ This is not a scientifically proven statement but has been treated as such by the non scientific panel which reviewed the EES.
Combined near road and background pollution
More specific criticism is made of the assessment of future levels of nitrogen dioxide adjacent the new road. The EPA describes the gas as the second most significant pollutant in Melbourne after ozone and ‘at low concentrations, such as those generally pccurring in the urban environment, it is irritating to the mucous membranes, and attacks the lungs, particularly of those individuals with existing respiratory illnesses such as asthma and bronchitis.’ The specific criticism of the AQS assessment of nitrogen dioxide (N02) levels refers to the allowable one hour concentration of the gas which is 15 parts per hundred million (pphm).
The background levels of N02 determined by measurement in 1987 and by computer prediction for the year 1994 can reach up to 10 pphm along considerable lengths of the new road during still sunny conditions. This measurement is assumed by the AQS to include the ‘near road’ affects. This assumption is considered by the writer to be in error.
A detailed description of the reason for this is explained in a letter from Dr Peter Whetton.
AIR QUALITY STUDY
byR. A. Wright
The reason why the AQS is considered in error relates to the way in which the concentration of N02 varies with distance from the road. To explain the difference of opinion a simple analogy can be used in which N02 is likened to smoke. The new road is regarded as a continuous source of smoke and background smoke occurs from outside the valleys. The AQS assumes that the concentration of smoke is the average of all the smoke sources in the valleys and that this level also represents the level of smoke near the road. Dr Whetton considers that the concentration of smoke will be greater nearer the road. Further it is reasonable to add the concentration of smoke from the new road alone to the average background level to obtain a reasonable approximation of near road pollutant concentration. This simple addition, not undertaken in the AWS, indicates that the EPA guidelines may well be exceeded for locations near the new road.
Dr Whetton also considers that further investigation would be necessary in order to obtain an acceptable scientific answer.
Future pollution levels
Further criticism is made of the AWS relating to the assumption that N02 levels will reduce in Melbourne as a result of the introduction of pollution controls on cars. These effects have yet to be measured and it may well be that the increase in the number of cars and the distances they travel within the city may offset the lower emissions expected.
In the Eastern Corridor, in order to maintain a maximum background level of N02 of 10 pphm in the valleys, for the year 2005 the current emissions from all sources will need to reduce by over 35% to make up for increased vehicle travel.
Traffic figures supplied for the AQS by the Road Construction Authority for the AQS do not reflect the significant increase in traffic in the region that the new road will permit. If these increases are properly evaluated and/or the construction of the freeway alternative proceeds sooner then higher
background levels than 10.0 pphm may occur.
The valleys as pollution locations
Although one of the main concerns of the AQS was that the valleys may be areas of significant pollution this aspect received inadequate attention.
If the valleys are susceptible to high background pollution levels then it is important that traffic through them be limited or avoided altogether.
This question has not been properly addressed in the AQS because of an error in the contour map Figure 6.1 which shows predicted levels of N02 in the study region. In
1987 the background levels of N02 were measured at 10 pphm on the road route. As is noted in 3.0 above this figure may cause a breach of the EPA limit of 15 pphm if no reduction occurs. The incorrect version of Figure 6.1, issued with the EES in November 1987, shows that in future the background levels of N02 will be a maximum of 7 pphm adjacent the new route.
However the corrected version, issued in
1988 after the Panel Inquiry was completed, gave background levels of 10 pphm over the same area in 1994. Figure 6.1 and the corrected version following on page 19. The revised version of the contour map casts considerable doubt regarding future air quality in the valleys. It also casts doubts regarding the claim made in the AQS immediately above the 1987 Figure 6.1 that ‘the model predictions confirmed the field measurements.’ Which predictions did they confirm?
The measured value of 10.0 pphm was made in a location where the predicted values were 3.5 pphm and 8.4 pphm for the 1987 and 1988 versions of Figure 6.1. respectively.
Panel findings on the air quality study
Much of the above information was contained in information supplied to the Panel, with the exception of Dr Peter Whetton’s findings and possibly the revised Figure 6.1. The conclusion the Panel made was that EPA concentration limits for N02 would be continue to be met after the construction of the road. In discussing the criticisms made above the Panel had this to say:
‘Even if the worst scenario produced by the opponents of the project were to occur, the panel does not believe any decrease in air quality would be sufficient reason for the s project not to proceed in view of the real benefits to the community by construction.’
18
KOONUNG & MULLUM CREEKS
Conclusions
Critics of the AQS were not in a position to say that EPA guidelines for N02 levels would be exceeded because to do so on the basis of predictions made in an unconvincing AQS would have been irresponsible. Itis regrettable that the Panel has taken the view that some possible breaches of the EPA guidelines are acceptable in preference to further investigations to resolve the issue.
AIR QUALITY STUDY FOR EASTERN CORRIDOR ROAD DEVELOPMENT The effect of the Eastern Arterial Road on the distribution of N02 in the region also Is relatively minor, with a small decline in concentration in the Western corner of the region and a small increase in concentration along the central strip, where the road is to be constructed. Overall, however, only minor changes in the distribution of N02 concentrations would result from the presence of the Eastern Arterial Road
The 1 hour acceptable objective for N02 is 15 pphm and, as can be seen in Fig 6-1, the highest predicted concentration of N02 in the study area, even during an episode, is well below this objective. Also a significant proportion of the N02 in the region comes from sources outside the study region. Thus the model predictions confirm the field measurements.
The assessment of noise pollution of the proposed Eastern Freeway Extension by the Road Construction Authority is not difficult to criticise because of previously affected residents adjacent to that route because of inadequate protection from study undertaken in the Eastern Arterial Road which led to outspoken criticism by affected residents adjacent that route because of inadequate protection from noise provided by the RCA with their noise barrier designs.
2.0 The eastern corridor study
This study which considered road proposals similar to those under current consideration adopted a 60 dB A recommended noise level limit for houses previously unaffected by road traffic. The assessment of the number of homes affected by noise was established for the arterial road design gave a total of 1010 homes affected over the full length of the road extension from Doncaster Road to Ringwood including the Ringwood Bypass. The adoption of the six lane freeway road would result in a total of 1600 homes affected by noise over the length of road from Bulleen Road to Ringwood including the Ringwood bypass.
3.0 The 1987 RCA Noise assessment
The RCA Environmental Effects Statement in 1987 on the same reading proposals listed
NOISE
POLLUTION
by R. A. Wright
no houses as affected by noise for either the arterial road or freeway proposal. This situation arises because the RCA adopted an acceptable noise level of 68dBA.
4.0 The south eastern arterial road
The same basis of noise assessment has been used on the above road as applied to the 1987 Eastern Freeway extension described in 3.0 above.
Cunrendy the RCA are installing an additional 380 metres of additional noise barriers to reduce noise levels on houses over 100 metres from the new road. The residents group acting on behalf of residents who are affected report that in their opinion the RCA has not only underestimated the noise which the new road would produce but has also adopted an allowable noise level which is considerably in excess of a desirable level. Such conclusions are supported by the Eastern Corridor Study assessment and the EPA comments in 5.0 below.
The EPA made no contribution to the RCA EES or to the Inquiry Panel. In the METR AS document M4 ‘Metropolitan Arterial Road Access Study’ May 1986 the EPA Submitted that:
Itis noted that the above reports (M2 and Addendum) refer to the existing EPA recommended noise level of 68dB(a) L10(18hr) in assessing the environmental impact of the various road proposals.
The EPA now considers that this criteria needs to be revised to:
a. provide additional protection to residents
b. account for night time heavy traffic flows
6.0 Panel findings on noise assessment
The Panel received full details of the facts as outlined in 2.0 above.
The Inquiry Panel made no recommendation to reduce the 68dBa current allowable noise level.
7.0 Conclusions
The above summary suggests to the writer that there is something seriously wrong with the conduct of all relevant government authorities with respect to the very real problem of noise associated with road traffic, particularly with respect to new major road proposals.
FREE-FLOWING TRAFFIC
Does it save energy and lower emissions in cities?
by P.W.G. Newman, J.R. Kenworthy and T.J. Lyons
School of Biological and Environmental Sciences, Murdoch University
Traffic and corridor studies from Perth are analysed together with an international comparison of 32 cities to seek an answer to this question. The data suggest that free-flowing traffic does not save energy or lower emissions overall in a city contrary to previous assertions. This is despite the apparently clear advantages in efficiency for individual vehicles. The reasons for this are examined in terms of travel distances, alternative modes and suboptimal vehicle usage due primarily to the land use structure of the city. The effect of congestion on time savings is also assessed. Some implications for urban road project justification and traffic engineering practice are examined.
Most motorists are aware that automobiles are highly fuel-efficient in smooth, free flowing traffic and poorly fuel-efficient in stop-start, congested traffic. They are also aware that emissions follow the same pattern. Predictive fuel and emissions models have been developed for vehicles based on the traffic conditions in which instrumented research vehicles are driven (Chang and Herman 1978; Bowyer et al 1985). The key parameter in both fuel and emissions models is average traffic speed: the higher the average traffic speed the lower the fuel use and emissions in individual vehicles (for fuel this applies up to average speeds of about 60 km/h). Thus Chang and herman for example claim: ‘We expect that improvements in traffic quality can reduce travel time which, in turn, can directly produce a reduction in fuel consumption’ (1978, p 75). Hence for a number of years there has been a strong research basis for the belief that feeflowing traffic saves fuel and lowers emissions.
We have argued in detail elsewhere (Newman and Kenworthy 1984) that this research on instrumented vehicles is useful in as much as it provides a good explanation of the way fuel is used and emissions are produced by vehicles in urban traffic. This can assist, for example, in comparing scientific advances in motor vehicle engineering.
new fuels, new engines and various add-on modifications to vehicles. However, when the results of this work are assumed to apply at a total urban system level, for example, improving average speeds will reduce fuel and emissions overall in a city, there are very serious questions to be asked. For example:
• Does free-flowing traffic cause increased vehicle use through decreases in other travel modes and changes in land use?
• If such increases occur, do they outweigh the gains in fuel efficiency, emissions and time savings for individual vehicles?
• Can traffic research be integrated into urban planning research to resolve this apparent trade-off between gains through vehicle efficiency versus losses due to increased vehicle use?
These questions need to be answered because it is now an established goal to provide smoother, freer-flowing urban traffic systems for reasons of energy conserva-. lion and emissions abatement. Most major cost-benefit models justifying road proposals incorporate significant community benefits from fuel savings, time savings and sometimes emissions reductions based on improvements in average speed. Such models have had virtually universal acceptance for around 40 years. Road lobby organisations constantly feed the general public a view that more urban freeways will be in the national interest to conserve valuable oil reserves (RACV 1982; Solloway 1985) and their view is reflected in the policy statements from the National Association of Australian State Road Authorities (NAASRA 1984):
In 1981, eight per cent of travel was on roads with very low peak hour travel speeds of less than 20 kilometres per hour. Almost half was on roads with peak hour speeds less than 40 kilometres per hour. Projections of future travel speed show that a 25 per cent funding increase would be required to prevent a reduction in already low travel speeds. A 25 per cent funding increase would be required to prevent a reduction in
already low'travel speeds. A 25 per cent increase would also save 110 million litres of fuel, representing a large proportion of all savings which could be achieved by any practical means, (p. 4)
However, such statements do not question whether improved individual vehicle efficiencies from free-flowing traffic will automatically mean fuel savings and emissions reductions overall in cities. The question needs to be asked and answered.
This paper attempts to do that by drawing together several of our recent traffic studies published elsewhere as separate pieces of research. The data are from Perth and from an international comparison of transport and land use in 32 principal world cities. As the main studies are documented in detail elsewhere the methodologies used are only briefly outlined here. The key feature of all these studies is an attempt to link traffic engineering data with a broader urban planning context.
Evidence on the effects of free-flowing traffic
The Perth Driving Cycle Study Between 1980 and 1983, Perth was the subject of an intensive traffic study using a computer-instrumented vehicle (Kenworth et al 1983). The purpose of this study was to develop a driving cycle by collecting a range of representative driving pattern data on all types of roads from the central city to the urban fringe. The instrumented vehicle was used to ‘chase’ vehicles in morning, evening and off-peak periods to record traffic conditions; the fuel consumed by the instrumented vehicle in all these conditions was recorded using an accurate fuel meter. This data set which amounted to over 3000 km of urban driving is one of the most detailed collections of data on urban traffic conditions and vehicular fuel consumption collected to date.
As part of this traffic study a comprehensive survey was also made of the broader land use and transportation characteristics
of the Perth metropolitan area, including per capita gasoline use on a small zone basis from central to outer areas (Newman et al 1985). Hence, it was possible to combine the detailed traffic data involving fuel consumption of individual vehicles with an understanding of the land use patterns and transportation processes that influence resulting per capita gasoline use (Newman and Kenworthy 1988).
The results depicted graphically in Fig. 1 show that there is at trade-off in energy terms between attempting t6 improve the fuel-efficiency of the traffic system through raising average speeds and trying to foster an urban system which is more fuel-efficient overall, congestion diminishes significantly from, central to outer areas, (eg average speeds improve 54%) and hence vehicle fuel efficiency improves; however actual per capita fuel use by residents in these areas increases significantly. Vehicles in central areas have 19% lower fuel efficiency than the Perth average due to congestion but the central area residents use 22% less actual fuel, and conversely, congestion free outer suburban driving is 12% more fuel efficient than average but residents use 29% more actual fuel. It is important to stress that the per capita fuel data incorporate the factor of vehicle fuel efficiency due to traffic conditions.
Why is this so? The obvious link is through the different land use, and the travel patterns induced by these, in the various suburbs. Thus land use/modal split data were examined for each area. These showed that as the distance from the central business district (CBD) increases:
• Density lowers from 25 to 6 people per ha
• Trip lengths increase from 7 to 13 km (for work) and 5 to 9km (for all trips)
• Public transport service declines from 12 to 0.4 km of service per ha of urban land
• Trips by car increase from 61 to 78%
This analysis also showed that gasoline
usage patterns by suburb do not follow income patterns, i.e., density and income are not correlated nor are travel patterns and income. In other words the land-use is fundamental in determining how much people use a car.
The same picture was observed through an analysis of large household travel survey collected in Perth by the State Government; it was found that for trips by people living at increasing distances from the CBD.
• the average speed of trips increases from 40 to 50 km/h;
• the vehicle efficiency improves by about 10%; and
• the total fuel consumed per capita increases by about 80%
It appears that the feedback parameters such as land-use factors and modes of travel exert an influence on gasoline use far in excess of the fuel efficiency of vehicles as determined by traffic conditions. In other words, in the congested but denser and more compact central and inner areas travel distances are shorter for all modes and there is
greater use of public transport, walking and cycling. In outer areas densities of development are low, travel distances are long and a much higher proportion of travel is by automobile with less public transport, walking and cycling.
The analysis was extended to include emissions (Kenworthy et al 1987). Like fuel consumption, emissions of CO (carbon monoxide) and HC (hydrocarbons or un-bumt gasoline) from automobile tailpipes are dependent upon the average speed of travel with obvious improvements as average speed increases. NOx (nitrogen oxides) are only slightly dependent on vehicle speed (Kent and Mudford 1979). The data show the same pattern as fuel consumption: vehicles driven in the Perth central area at 34 km/h average speed have 17-27% more HC and CO emissions, respectively, per kilometre of travel relative to the average for Perth but residents of the area actually generate 19-21% less total CO and HC, respectively, due to their smaller use of the automobile and greater use of other modes. Conversely in outer areas there is a positive benefit in terms of emissions from vehicles with the average speed of 52 km/h yielding 9-16% lower emissions per kilometre (HC and CO, respectively) than the average for
Perth; however, residents of the outer suburbs actually generate some 24-27% more CO and HC, respectively, than the average for Perth residents due to their longer auto travel distances and less use of other modes.
As with fuel, a pattern emerges of a significant trade-off between attempting to control emissions through improving traffic flows and the overall effect this has on the actual amount of emissions produced. In other words higher average traffic speed appears to spread the city, creating lower density land-use, a greater need for cars, longer travel distances and reduced use of other less polluting or pollution-free modes. The benefits gained in terms of less polluting traffic streams appear to be overwhelmed by the sheer amount of extra travel and the resulting bulk of emissions.
Thus the evidence from the Perth Driving Cycle study suggests that in Perth at least, free-flowing traffic is associated with increased fuel use and increased emissions.
Corridor studies in Perth Supportive evidence on the mechanism as to how this effect of free flowing traffic works it way back into greater use of the automobile and also non optimal use of the automobile, are provided by some corridor studies in Perth.
The effects of free-flowing traffic on public transport use. An attitudinal survey was conducted of bus and train passengers who use a transportation corridor in Perth (Kenworthy and Newman 1985). The aim of this study was to assess the importance of road congestion in the decision to use public transport. In particular the survey attempted to find out how many people might transfer from public transport to cars should congestion be significantly reduced or eliminated in the corridor. The survey showed some 17% of bus passengers and 11% of train passengers would transfer if the congestion was eased. It was calculated that if only half of these passengers actually did transfer to cars, the extra gasoline use would be enough to cancel out the savings from a computer-coordinated set of traffic signals along the corridor designed to smooth out traffic flows.
Bus patronage in Perth was examined in freeway corridors and corridors without freeways to see if congestion levels were impacting on patronage. At the time of the survey the freeways were new and traffic was free-flowing. Freeway-related bus services in Perth were found to be declining faster in the average number of passengers carried per service than other bus services, some of which in the relatively congested
inner areas were improving their passenger-carrying performance (Kenworthy and Newman 1985). Since then freeways in Perth have become significantly congested at peak hours and public transport patronage in those corridors has risen concomitantly.
The effects of free-flowing traffic on vehicle efficiency Not all free-flowing traffic improves the fuel efficiency of a vehicle. As mentioned before, vehicles are generally engineered to perform in a fuel-optimal way at speeds of around 55-60 km/h. A study in Perth was designed to find the fuel and time implications of freeway speed limits and examined optimal driving conditions in freeway and other driving conditions (Kenworthy et al 1986).
The study found that increases in the speed limit above 80 km/h involve progressively greater fuel penalties of up to 31% at 110 km/h for an 8km length of freeway. Our investigation into driving patterns in Perth during 1980-83, found that Perth already has over a third of its daily travel at speeds above the fuel optimal speed of 55 km/h (Kenworthy et al 1983). Using some simulated urban trips under controlled cruise conditions it was found that average speed alone is actually a misleading criterion, even in assessing the energy efficiency of a road system per se. This is because higher average speeds are often achieved by merely increasing the potential for higher cruise speeds between stops. Thus two trips can have the same average speed with very different fuel economy, i.e., one trip achieves its average speed by higher cruise speeds to offset idle periods and has much poorer fuel economy than a trip which has low cruise speeds but fewer stops and idle periods.
This Perth study suggests therefore that traffic policies which encourage further increases in cruise speeds such as increasing speed limits, freeway building and road widening will be counter-productive for energy conservation. On the other hand, traffic policies that minimise stops and idling periods while keeping cruise speeds close to 55 km/h will save fuel. This means that for energy conservation, roads and signal systems should be designed to encourage low travel speeds with fewer stops and shorter idle period. Policies that seek to achieve a ‘blanket’ increase in average speeds by increasing cruise speeds (e.g. raising speed limits or building more freeways), will more than likely be counter-productive in energy terms.
The Perth evidence suggests that the conditions under which a policy of con-
strained cruise speeds might be more practicable would most likely include:
• Higher traffic levels along arterial roads with computer-linked traffic signals;
• A more compact urban form where travel distances arc much shorter and more suitable to a reduction in cruise speeds.
higher density activity also means more intensively used roads with lower cruise speeds so that i f at the same time stops can be lowered it would lead to better fuel efficiency. As already shown, higher density areas have lower use of transport energy because of greater walking, cycling and public transport and shorter trip lengths. It may therefore be possible to optimise land-use and traffic systems as far as energy conservation is concerned, by pursuing the same policy of increased concentration of urban activity.
The international cities comparison The Perth studies are a powerful indicator of the relationship between free-flowing traffic and fuel-emissions issues as they provide integrated data between traffic engineering and urban planning, together with evidence of the mechanisms behind the relationship.
However, it could easily be suggested that the Perth system is somehow different and that the relationship should not be ex-. tended to other cities. Our most recent study examines the wider situation by assessing the data on gasoline use and traffic speed in 32 principal world cities (Kenworth and Newman 1987; Newman and Ken worthy 1987). This study is the result of 4 years of data collection and provides for the first time a uniform international data set for comparisons of urban transport and land-use.
Gasoline use and average speed Table 1 contains data on average traffic network speeds, average public transport speeds and gasoline use for the 32 cities. These data suggest that it is the cities with the highest average traffic speeds that have the highest per capita gasoline consumption. Thus free-flowing traffic is not associated with lower fuel use in this global survey. It is in fact cities with the most constrained traffic flows that have the lowest per capita gasoline use as hypothesised by us. The positive correlation between the two parameters is statistically significant.
In terms of public transport speeds. Table 1 also shows that those cities with the lowest overall public transport operating speeds have the highest energy. This is because they tend to be totally or predominantly bus-based and buses simply do not compete in speed terms with private automobiles. The
range of bus speeds for the cities is remarkably small, tending to be around 20-21 km/h and never exceeding 25 km/h. On the other , hand, those cities with significant rail-systems tend to have much faster overall public transport operating speeds because train systems have average speeds typically about 40km/h and up to 55 km/h in some cases, such systems provide very good competition to the automobile for speed of access. Thus the only high average speed which appears to correlate with low fuel use if that of public transport, not private transport.
The other obvious relationship which comes out of these data is that public transport viability is closely linked to urban density. A detailed examination of the data shows that transit begins to be attractive option when densities are a minimum of 30-40 people per ha both within cities and across cities as a whole.
The range of fuel consumption in the survey is very large with Australian cities around half the per capita gasoline use of US cities, more than double European cities and six times the level in Asian cites. This variation in gasoline use was analysed and the following general relationships found:
• Not more than half of the variation can be explained by vehicle size, income and gasoline price
• There is a close association between , low urban energy use and density of jobs and residents and central city strength
• High gasoline use is also closely linked to the degree to which the city provides automobile infrastructure in the form of roads and car parking.
Thus the international cities comparison suggests that a policy of free-flowing traffic is not a policy for energy conservation, rather it creates greater car dependency in cities through progressively less dense, less centralised land-use patterns, greater overall provision for cars and diminishing viability of public transport, walking and bicycling.
Travel time Urban traffic congestion is generally attacked on the basis of its dis-benefit in extra travel times. Table 1 contains data from the international cities comparison on travel times expressed as total average vehicle hours and passenger hours per capita (i.e time spent in cars and public transport). The data show that there are much higher total per capita vehicle and passenger hours in the American and Australian cities where average road network speeds are high, compared to the European and Asian cities where traffic is much more congested. s
TABLE 1
GASOLINE USE, ANNUAL TRAVEL TIME AND AVERAGE TRANSPORTATION SPEEDS FOR 32 CITIES
CITIES GASOLINE USE AV. SPEED TOTAL VEHICLE TOTAL PASSENGER AVERAGE SPEED OF
(M) PER PERSON OF TRAFFIC (KM/H) HRS PER CAPITA (CARS PLUS HOURS PER CAPITA TRANSPORT (KM/H) BUS TRAIN TRAM OVERALL
US cities Houston 74 510 51 194 318 22 22
Phoenix 69 908 42 218 297 23 - - 23
Detroit 65 978 44 262 321 21 42 - 22
Denver 63 466 45 210 268 21 - - 21
Los Angeles 58 474 45 201 325 21 • - 21
San Fransisco 55 365 46 207 328 22 45 15 29
Boston 54 185 39 226 339 18 45 20 30
Washington, DC 51 241 39 208 330 18 40 - 26
Chicago 48 246 41 187 304 18 47 - 37
New York 44 033 35 172 272 15 35 - 31
Average 58 541 43 208 310 20 42 18 26
Australian cities
Perth 32 610 43 155 291 22 35 - 24
Brisbane 30 653 48 137 272 23 37 - 31
Melbourne 29 104 48 124 243 21 33 18 28
Adelaide 28 791 43 143 276 21 45 28 29
Sydney 27 986 39 141 289 20 45 - 37
Average 29 829 44 140 274 21 39 23. 30
Canadian city Toronto 34 813 ? ? ? 20 34 16 25
European cities Hamburg 16 671 30 150 299 22 36 ■- 31
Frankfurt 16 093 30 144 291 22 44 17 37
Zurich 15 709 36 123 285 20 46 15 33
Stockholm 15 574 30 110 212 25 36 26 32
Brussels 14 744 ? ? ? 20 38 17 27
Paris 14 091 28 102 213 13 45 - 40
London 12 426 31 86 207 18 38 ■ 31
Munich 12 372 35 96 202 20 55 17 44
West Berlin 11 331 28 101 265 20 32 - 27
Copenhagen 11 106 45 80 189 24 54 - 38
Vienna 10 074 30 93 235 19 38 17 23
Amsterdam 9171 39 78 206 18 57 15 36
Average 13 280 30 106 235 20 43 18 33
Asian cities
Tokyo 8488 21 104 286 12 40 13 38
Singapore 6003 30 29 162 19 - - 19
Hong Kong 1987 21 24 160 15 31 10 17
Average 5493 24 53 203 15 36 12 25
USSR city
Moscow 380 45 8 +138.1 21 41 18 >37
Correlation coefficients with gasoline use0.703* - - 0.273 0.018 -0.260-0.376*
•Indicates significance P>0.05. Correlations exclude Moscow.
The difference in travel time appears to be made up for by greater time spent walking (and cycling) in European and Asian cities so that the travel time budget for all cities is probably roughly the same. However, the data indicate that despite the massive infrastructure for motorised private travel there is no obvious travel time savings in those cities with a large commitment to the automobile - people on average just spend more time in cars.
Perth cf. New York further verification of how congestion relates to transport and land use was considered possible if the kind of detailed study within Perth could be compared to another city. Although not as complete, some data were collected on New York which is a very different type of city to Perth as it has extreme levels of congestion in its high density central and inner areas. It thus offers the potential for some compari-
son at the other end of the traffic spectrum from Perth.
Table 2 presents data on New York in terms of gasoline use, average traffic speed and urban density for the central, inner and outer areas as well as the whole city. As with Perth the overall energy efficiency of New York clearly improves as congestion gets worse, despite the obvious deterioration in the energy efficiency of New York clearly improves as congestion gets worse, despite the obvious deterioration in the energy efficiency of the traffic system that would occur from New York’s outer areas to the centre of Manhattan.
Figure 2 shows the contract between Perth and New York, the same qualitative, pattern is evident showing lower overall fuel use associated with slower traffic speeds and directly linked to the level of urban density. However, in New York it is even more extreme, further details studies on New York or on a European or Asian city would help to delineate the patterns developed here. However, the evidence suggests that other cities, most of which have greater congestion than Perth, are likely to have an even more positive relationship between congestion and the fuel efficiency of their city with land-use being the key parameter linking the two.
Policy Implications
Urban road project justification The cost-benefit analyses of major road projects usually incorporate time savings, fuel savings and occasionally emissions in their justification. The research outlined here suggests that in urban situations the simple assumptions used in these models are probably
wrong. Abelson (1986) in his recent review of the economics of roads seriously questions the conceptual and data basis of these models, although he only considers the effects on individual vehicles.
As millions of dollars of investment arc directed annually into urban roads it would appear to be essential for their justification to be valid. The research conducted here would suggest that fuel (and emission) would probably be a cost and not a benefit in any complete calculation that involved the whole city. -As an interim measure, while better cost-benefit models were being developed, it would seem prudent not to include fuel (or emissions) in road project justification.
Similarly, with time savings it is not a simple matter of predicting vehicle time before and after a new road. What appears to be necessary is a more dynamic feedback process built into land-use/transport modelling which incorporates the fact that new roads will influence land-use and in turn detract from initial predicted time savings.
Traffic engineers and congestion. Traffic engineers must daily confront the problem of how to assess the impacts of traffic congestion and what solutions to offer. Their responses are conditioned by a general approach that traffic congestion is always a negative thing and must be eliminated as far as possible; the way they deal with congestion is necessarily determined by the way they think about it. The data in this study and especially the broad perspective gained from the international comparisons offer an alternative way of viewing congestion: that rather than being something which must always be eradicated, congestion can actually be creatively exploited as a tool in helping a city progress towards lower car dependency and lower energy use through a better balance between cars, public transport, walking and bicycling. This concept has sometimes been referred to as ‘planned congestion’.
Developments along these lines occurred in Europe in the 1960s when it was recognised that building more large roads was destroying their cities and not ultimately helping the congestion situation either (Hall and Hass-Klau 1985). This was followed by a change of priorities in transportation policy towards public transport and something of an acceptance that certain levels of congestion are a fact of life in cities. The same awareness has become much more common in Canadian cities in the past decade (Cervero 1986).
A similar recognition would appear to be
TABLE 2
GASOLINE USE, AVERAGE TRAFFIC SPEED AND URBAN DENSITY BY CITY REGION IN THE NEW YORK TRI-STATE
Metropolitan Area
Area Gasoline use Average traffic Urban density
(MJ per capita) network speed (km/h) (persons/ha)
Outer area New York Whole city (New York Tri-State 59 590 40.1 13
Metro, area) Inner area 44 0333 34.9 20
(City of New York) Central city (New York County incl. 20 120 25.8 107
Manhattan) 11 860 16.1 251
24 KOONUNG & MULLUM CREEKS
AVERAGE
SPEED
V'
NEW YORK
Figure 2. Comparison betwen Perth and New York showing how gasoline use per capita and average traffic speed varies across the two urban areas.
needed in Australia, at least with regard to major new roads in urban areas. ‘Planned congestion’ could be seen as an opportunity to help contain the outer growth of cities, develop more efficient, concentrated nodes of urban activity, shorten travel distances and in particular it could give priority to public transport. This approach has many benefits including the reduction of transport energy use in our cities. Obviously this approach would not preclude managing or alleviating congestion using established traffic management techniques, especially where environmental amenity or the desirability of living in neighbourhoods was at stake. The Dutch Woonerf concept has been used to manage traffic in an attractive way for neighbourhoods.
This approach would not interfere with efforts to optimise traffic systems for fuel efficiency by reducing stops and idle periods without raising cruise speeds and average speeds. However, it would mean a fundamentally different approach to the assessment of major urban traffic problems taking into account the positive benefits of congestion as outlined above. Thus the role of the traffic engineer can change from one of being primarily concerned with alleviating congestion to one of creatively managing congestion. This would place the role of traffic engineer in a much broader context where all actions are closely linked to the broader transportation and land-use planning goals of the city.
Conclusions
The studies outlined here confirm that free-flowing traffic does not lead to savings in fuel or time, or lowering of emissions in a city overall. The means of achieving these savings appear to lie in more fundamental transport and land-use planning, especially the role of urban density and how it relates to travel distances and use of other modes. This understanding can enable congestion to be used as a positive force in improving cities for many purposes including energy and emissions considerations.
Acknowledgment
This project was supported by funding from the National Energy Research, Development and Demonstration Council.
References
Abelson, P.W. (1986) The Economic Evaluation of Roads in Australia, Australian Professional Publications, Sydney.
Bowyer, D.P., Akcelik, R., and Biggs, D.C. (1985) Guide to Fuel consumption
Analyses for Urban Traffic Management, ARRB Special Report No. 32, Australian Road Research Board, Melbourne.
Cervero, R. (1986) Urban transit in Canada: Integration and innovation at its best. Transport Quart. 40,293-316
Chang, M.F., and Herman, R.
(1978) An attempt to characterise traffic in metropolitan areas.
Transport. Sci., 12 (1) 58-79.
Hall, P., and Hass-Klau, C.
(1985) Can Rail Save the City?
The Impacts of Rail Transit and Pedestrianisation on British and German Cities. Gower,
England.
Kent, J.H., and Mudford,
N.R. (1979) Motor vehicle emissions and fuel consumption modelling. Transport. Res.,
13A, 395-406.
Kenworth, J.R., (1986) Driving Cycles, Urban Form and Transport Energy PhD. Thesis, Environmental Science, Murdoch University, Western Australia.
Kenworihy, J.R., and Newman, P.W.G. (1985) Congestion, Public Transport and Energy: A Preliminary Examination of the Public Transport and Energy Implications of Reducing Congestion in Perth. Transport Research Paper 1/85, Environmental Science, Murdoch University (60 p.).
Kenworthy, J.R., and Newman, P.W.G. (1987) Learning from the best and worst. Transportation and Land Use Lessons from 32 Inter national Cities with Implications for Gasoline Use and Emissions. Paper to Eighth Annual Pedestrian conference, Boulder, Colorado, October and Transport Research Paper 7/87, environmental Science, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia.
Kenworthy, J.R., and Newman, P.W.G. and Lyons, T.J. (1983) ADriving Cyclefor Perth. Final Report to National Energy Research Development and Demonstration council Project No. 79/9252 NERDDP/EG/ 83/129 Canberra (326 pp.).
Kenworthy, J.R., and Newman, P.W.G. and Lyons T.J. (1987) Does Free Flowing Traffic Save Energy and Lower Emission in. Cities? Transport Research Paper 6/87, Environmental Science, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia.
Kenworthy, J.R., and Newman, P.W.G. Rainford, H., and Lyons, T.J. (1986) Fuel consumption, time saving and freeway
speed limits Traffic Eng. control, 27,455-459.
National Association of Australian State Road Authorities (NAASRA) (1984) Funding the Future: Australian Roads - The Major Findings of the NAASRA Roads Study, 1984, (25 pp.)
Newman, P.W.G., and Kenworthy, J.R. (1984) The use and abuse of driving cycle research: clarifying the relationship between traffic congestion, energy and emissions. Transport Quart., 38,615-635.
Newman, P.W.G., and Kenworthy, J.R.
(1986) The transport energy trade-off: Fuel-efficient traffic versus fuel-efficient cities. Transport. Res., 22A (3), 163-174.
Newman, P.W.G., and Kenworthy, J.R.
(1987) Transport and Urban Form in Thirty-two of the World's Principal Cities. Presented to ‘International Symposium on Transport, Communication and Urban Form’ Monash University 24-26 August 1987.
Newman, P.W.G., Kenworthy, J.R., and Lyons, TJ. (1985) Transport Energy Use in the Perth Metropolitan Region: Some Urban Policy Implications. Urban Policy Res., 3,4-15.
R AC V (1982) Freeway to pay for itself in lives, fuel and time savings. Royalauto, July, 3-4.
Solloway, B. (1985) Dipping lights. The Road Patrol, Oct-Nov., p. 8.
LOBBY LIST
NAMES AND ADDRESSES OF COUNCILLORS
RINGWOOD COUNCIL Frank Corr 89-91 Wonga Rd.,
Nth Ringwood 876 2084 Lillian Rosewarne, JP,
3 Bellbird Crt., Ringwood 870 3390 Betty Milton, 3 Graeme Rd.,
Nth Ringwood 870 4531 Bill Wilkins, JP, 64 Dublin Rd.,
East Ringwood 870 2016
Robin Gardini, 4 Aurum Cres.,
Ringwood 879 3874
Anne Fraser, 21 Heatherbrae Ave.,
Ringwood 870 4203
Michael Nardella, 177 Bedford Rd.,
Heathmont 870 4852
John Caffyn, 14 Bellbird Crt.,
Ringwood 870 5846
Leo Dineen, 14 Allen St.,
Heathmont 729 0564
NUNAWADING COUNCIL
Valda Arrowsmith, 16 Mcdowall St., Mitcham 3132 874 1414 « Dorothy Smith, 16 Creek Rd.,
Mitcham 3132 874 6067 Bruce Atkinson, 7 Bader Ave., v Nunawading 3131 874 2415
Jan Plummer, (Mayor) 1/3 James Ave., Mitcham 3132 874 2086 John Madden, 5 Culbara Drive, Vermont 3133 874 6129 William Coyne, 32 Wildwood Ave., Vermont South 3133 232 0330 Wal Riddell, 125 Central Rd.,
Blackburn 3130 878 0091 Tony Bowden, 183 Blackburn Rd., Blackburn 3130 877 6197 Peter Dempsey, 43 Jeffrey St., Blackburn 3130 878 6829 Peter Allan, 4 Tyrell Ave.,
Blackburn 3130 878 2417 John Smith, 26 Linum St.,
Blackburn 3130 877 3036 Wendy Reid, 11 Alandale Rd., Blackburn 3130 878 0171
BOXHILL COUNCIL
David Reid, 39 Bundoora Pde.,
Box Hill North 890 5596 R.J.C.Anderson, (Mayor) 21 Salisbury Ave., Mont Albert North 898 7768 Tony Hargreaves, 39 Bundoran Pde., Mont Albert North 898 6363 Marjorie Morgan, 18 Nan St.,
Box Hill North 890 2107 B.A.Walters, J.P. 24 Wellington Rd.
, Box Hill 890 8273 R.R.Crawford, 16 Thurston St.,
Box Hill 898 5322
P.Tuckett, 7 Newton St.
Surrey Hills 898 4712 I.R.Buckingham, 53 Kitchener St.,
Box Hill South 890 9260 T.W.F.Thorpe, J.P. 14 Elgar Rd.,Burwood 288 2200
DONCASTER-TEMPLESTOWE
Jurgen Koswig, 29 Highfield Rd.,
East Doncaster 3109 842 7400 William Larkin, 25 Canara St.,
East Doncaster 3109 842 1652(Mayor) Barry Jones, 3 Kiewa St.,
Doncaster 3108 848 6162
Eric McKenzie, 403 Manningham Rd.,
Doncaster 848 5468
Trevor Waring, c/- City of Doncaster &
Templestowe, 699 Doncaster Rd.,
Doncaster
Alan Burlock, 20 Whitelodge Crt.,
Donvale 874 3885
Paula Tait, 397 Manningham rd.,
Doncaster 848 7600
Brian Gilmore, c/- City of Doncaster &
Templestowe, 699 Doncaster Rd.,
Doncaster
Greg Nicolau, d- City of Doncaster & Templestowe, 699 Doncaster Rd., Doncaster
Kenneth McKenzie, 11 David Rd.,
Warrandyte 844 2332
Vernon Denford, 30 Adelyn Ave.,
Donvale 874 8173
CAMBERWELL (N-E Ward)
Larainne Beattie, 177 Balwyn Rd., Balwyn Judith Harrison, 3/289 Mont Albert Rd., Surrey Hills 836 2749 Sally Brentnall, 11 Carlyle Cres., Surrey Hills 890 2750
MEMBERS OF STATE PARLIAMENT
MINISTERS
The Hon John Cain Premier 1 Treasury Place, Melb3002 651 9111 The Hon. Thomas Roper,
Minister for Planning and Environment 477 Collins St., Melbourne 3000 628 5337 The Hon. James SImmonds,
Minister for Local Government 7th Floor, 500 Bourke St.,
Melbourne 3000 602 9411 The Hon. Kay Setches,
Minister for Conservation Forests & Lands 240 Victoria Parade, East Melbourne 3002 651 4011
The Hon. James Kennan, Q.C.,
Minister for Transport,
589 Collins St.,
Melbourne 3000 619 6666
LOCAL MEMBERS
Mitcham John Harrowfield(ALP) 6 Station St., Mitcham 878 4113 Doncaster Victor Perton(LP) c/- Parliament House, Melbuorne 3002 651 8911
Warrandyte Phil Honeywood(LP) Shop 9, Heymart Arcade, Hewish Rd.,
Croydon 725 3570
Wantlrna Carolyn Dorothy Hirsh(ALP)
614 Mountain Hwy, Bayswater 729 1622 Ringwood Kay Setches(ALP) Shop 12, Railway PI., Ringwood 870 7396 Balwyn Robert Clarke(LP) 327 Whitehorse Rd., Balwyn 3103 836 7111 Box Hill Margaret Ray(ALP) 537 Station St., Box Hill 898 6606
MEMBERS IN OTHER SUBURBS AFFECTED BY THE PROPOSED ROADS
Melbourne Neil Cole(ALP) 7 Errol St., North Melbourne 3051 328 4637 Northcote Tony Sheahan(ALP) 202 High St., Northcote 3070 489 5954 Kew Jan Wade(LP) Suite 1, 400 High St., Kew 3101 862 2999
UPPER HOUSE Boronia
The Hon. Jean McLean(ALP) 14c Boronia
Rd., Vermont 3133 874 6005
The Hon. Gerard B. Ashman(LP) Shop 29,
Bayswater Villiage, 3-9
High St., Bayswater 3153 729 5755
Nunawading
The Hon. George Cox(LP) 26 Masons Rd., Blackburn 3130 878 6005 The Hon. Rosmary Varty(LP) Suite 2, 29 Ringwood St., Ringwood 3134 870 2841 East Yarra
The Hon. Mark Birrell (LP) 325 Camberwell Rd., Camberwell 3124 813 3313 The Hon. Haddon Storey,Q.C.(LP) 95 Co-tham Rd., Kew 817 6166 Templestowe
The Hon. Albert Skeggs (LP) 93 Upper Heidelberg Rd.,
Ivanhoe 3079 497 4300
The Hon. John Miles(LP) PO Box 150
Eltham 3095 439 2911
Melbourne
The Hon. Barry Pullen(ALP) 115 Brunswick St. Fitzroy 3065 419 7740 The Hon. Evan Walker(ALP) Suite 4, 4th Floor, 2 Collins St., Melb 3000 63 3291 Melbourne North
The Hon. Giovanni Sgro(ALP) 161 Sydney Rd., Coburg 3058 383 1363 The Hon. Caroline Hogg(ALP) 690 Sydney Rd., Brunswick 3056 383 5344
No comments:
Post a Comment